Writing Test 10

This passage is adapted from Francis J. Flynn and Gabrielle
S. Adams, "Money Can't Buy Love: Asymmetric Beliefs about
Gift Price and Feelings of Appreciation." 2008 by Elsevier
Inc.
          Every day, millions of shoppers hit the stores in
          full force--both online and on foot--searching
          frantically for the perfect gift. Last year, Americans
Line      spent over $30 billion at retail stores in the month of
  5       December alone. Aside from purchasing holiday
          gifts, most people regularly buy presents for other
          occasions throughout the year, including weddings,
          birthdays, anniversaries, graduations, and baby
          showers. This frequent experience of gift-giving can
  10      engender ambivalent feelings in gift-givers. Many
          relish the opportunity to buy presents because
          gift-giving offers a powerful means to build stronger
          bonds with ones closest peers. At the same time,
          many dread the thought of buying gifts; they worry
  15      that their purchases will disappoint rather than
          delight the intended recipients.
          Anthropologists describe gift-giving as a positive
          social process, serving various political, religious, and
          psychological functions. Economists, however, offer
  20      a less favorable view. According to Waldfogel (1993),
          gift-giving represents an objective waste of resources.
          People buy gifts that recipients would not choose to
          buy on their own, or at least not spend as much
          money to purchase (a phenomenon referred to as
  25      "the deadweight loss of Christmas"). To wit, givers
          are likely to spend $100 to purchase a gift that
          receivers would spend only $80 to buy themselves.
          This "deadweight loss" suggests that gift-givers are
          not very good at predicting what gifts others will
  30      appreciate. That in itself is not surprising to social
          psychologists. Research has found that people often
          struggle to take account of others perspectives--
          their insights are subject to egocentrism, social
          projection, and multiple attribution errors.
  35      What is surprising is that gift-givers have
          considerable experience acting as both gift-givers and
          gift-recipients, but nevertheless tend to overspend
          each time they set out to purchase a meaningful gift.
          In the present research, we propose a unique
  40      psychological explanation for this overspending
          problem--i.e., that gift-givers equate how much they
          spend with how much recipients will appreciate the
          gift (the more expensive the gift, the stronger a
          gift-recipients feelings of appreciation). Although a
  45      link between gift price and feelings of appreciation
          might seem intuitive to gift-givers, such an
          assumption may be unfounded. Indeed, we propose
          that gift-recipients will be less inclined to base their
          feelings of appreciation on the magnitude of a gift
  50      than givers assume.
          Why do gift-givers assume that gift price is closely
          linked to gift-recipients feelings of appreciation?
          Perhaps givers believe that bigger (i.e., more
          expensive) gifts convey stronger signals of
  55      thoughtfulness and consideration. According to
          Camerer (1988) and others, gift-giving represents a
          symbolic ritual, whereby gift-givers attempt to signal
          their positive attitudes toward the intended recipient
          and their willingness to invest resources in a future
  60      relationship. In this sense, gift-givers may be
          motivated to spend more money on a gift in order to
          send a "stronger signal" to their intended recipient.
          As for gift-recipients, they may not construe smaller
          and larger gifts as representing smaller and larger
  65      signals of thoughtfulness and consideration.
          The notion of gift-givers and gift-recipients being
          unable to account for the other partys perspective
          seems puzzling because people slip in and out of
          these roles every day, and, in some cases, multiple
  70      times in the course of the same day. Yet, despite the
          extensive experience that people have as both givers
          and receivers, they often struggle to transfer
          information gained from one role (e.g., as a giver)
          and apply it in another, complementary role (e.g., as
  75      a receiver). In theoretical terms, people fail to utilize
          information about their own preferences and
          experiences in order to produce more efficient
          outcomes in their exchange relations. In practical
          terms, people spend hundreds of dollars each year on
  80      gifts, but somehow never learn to calibrate their gift
          expenditures according to personal insight.

This passage is adapted from Virginia Woolf, Three Guineas.
1938 by Harcourt, Inc. Here, Woolf considers the situation
of women in English society.
          Close at hand is a bridge over the River Thames,
          an admirable vantage ground for us to make a
          survey. The river flows beneath; barges pass, laden
Line      with timber, bursting with corn; there on one side are
  5       the domes and spires of the city; on the other,
          Westminster and the Houses of Parliament. It is a
          place to stand on by the hour, dreaming. But not
          now. Now we are pressed for time. Now we are here
          to consider facts; now we must fix our eyes upon the
  10      procession--the procession of the sons of educated
          men.
          There they go, our brothers who have been
          educated at public schools and universities,
          mounting those steps, passing in and out of those
  15      doors, ascending those pulpits, preaching, teaching,
          administering justice, practising medicine,
          transacting business, making money. It is a solemn
          sight always--a procession, like a caravanserai
          crossing a desert. . . . But now, for the past twenty
  20      years or so, it is no longer a sight merely, a
          photograph, or fresco scrawled upon the walls of
          time, at which we can look with merely an esthetic
          appreciation. For there, trapesing along at the tail
          end of the procession, we go ourselves. And that
  25      makes a difference. We who have looked so long at
          the pageant in books, or from a curtained window
          watched educated men leaving the house at about
          nine-thirty to go to an office, returning to the house
          at about six-thirty from an office, need look passively
  30      no longer. We too can leave the house, can mount
          those steps, pass in and out of those doors, . . . make
          money, administer justice. . . . We who now agitate
          these humble pens may in another century or two
          speak from a pulpit. Nobody will dare contradict us
  35      then; we shall be the mouthpieces of the divine
          spirit--a solemn thought, is it not? Who can say
          whether, as time goes on, we may not dress in
          military uniform, with gold lace on our breasts,
          swords at our sides, and something like the old
  40      family coal-scuttle on our heads, save that that
          venerable object was never decorated with plumes of
          white horsehair. You laugh--indeed the shadow of
          the private house still makes those dresses look a
          little queer. We have worn private clothes so
  45      long. . . . But we have not come here to laugh, or to
          talk of fashions--men's and womens. We are here,
          on the bridge, to ask ourselves certain questions.
          And they are very important questions; and we have
          very little time in which to answer them. The
  50      questions that we have to ask and to answer about
          that procession during this moment of transition are
          so important that they may well change the lives of
          all men and women for ever. For we have to ask
          ourselves, here and now, do we wish to join that
  55      procession, or don't we? On what terms shall we join
          that procession? Above all, where is it leading us, the
          procession of educated men? The moment is short; it
          may last five years; ten years, or perhaps only a
          matter of a few months longer. . . . But, you will
  60      object, you have no time to think; you have your
          battles to fight, your rent to pay, your bazaars to
          organize. That excuse shall not serve you, Madam.
          As you know from your own experience, and there
          are facts that prove it, the daughters of educated men
  65      have always done their thinking from hand to
          mouth; not under green lamps at study tables in the
          cloisters of secluded colleges. They have thought
          while they stirred the pot, while they rocked the
          cradle. It was thus that they won us the right to our
  70      brand-new sixpence. It falls to us now to go on
          thinking; how are we to spend that sixpence? Think
          we must. Let us think in offices; in omnibuses; while
          we are standing in the crowd watching Coronations
          and Lord Mayors Shows; let us think . . . in the
  75      gallery of the House of Commons; in the Law Courts;
          let us think at baptisms and marriages and funerals.
          Let us never cease from thinking--what is this
          "civilization" in which we find ourselves? What are
          these ceremonies and why should we take part in
  80      them? What are these professions and why
          should we make money out of them? Where in
          short is it leading us, the procession of the sons of
          educated men? 

Whey to Go Greek yogurt--a strained form of cultured yogurt--has grown enormously in popularity in the United States since it was first introduced in the country in the late 1980s. From 2011 to 2012 alone, sales of Greek yogurt in the US increased by 50 percent. The resulting increase in Greek yogurt production has forced those involved in the business to address the detrimental effects that the yogurt-making process may be having on the environment. Fortunately, farmers and others in the Greek yogurt business have found many methods of controlling and eliminating most environmental threats. Given these solutions as well as the many health benefits of the food, the advantages of Greek yogurt [1] outdo the potential drawbacks of its production. [1] The main environmental problem caused by the production of Greek yogurt is the creation of acid whey as a by-product. [2] Because it requires up to four times more milk to make than conventional yogurt does, Greek yogurt produces larger amounts of acid whey, which is difficult to dispose of. [3] To address the problem of disposal, farmers have found a number of uses for acid whey. [4] They can add it to livestock feed as a protein [2] supplement, and people can make their own Greek-style yogurt at home by straining regular yogurt. [5] If it is improperly introduced into the environment, acid-whey runoff [3] can pollute waterways, depleting the oxygen content of streams and rivers as it decomposes. [6] Yogurt manufacturers, food [4] scientists; and government officials are also working together to develop additional solutions for reusing whey. [5] [6] Though these conservation methods can be costly and time-consuming, they are well worth the effort. Nutritionists consider Greek yogurt to be a healthy food: it is an excellent source of calcium and protein, serves [7] to be a digestive aid, and [8] it contains few calories in its unsweetened low- and non-fat forms. Greek yogurt is slightly lower in sugar and carbohydrates than conventional yogurt is. [9] Also, because it is more concentrated, Greek yogurt contains slightly more protein per serving, thereby helping people stay [10] satiated for longer periods of time. These health benefits have prompted Greek yogurts recent surge in popularity. In fact, Greek yogurt can be found in an
increasing number of products such as snack food and frozen desserts. Because consumers reap the nutritional benefits of Greek yogurt and support those who make and sell [11] it, therefore farmers and businesses should continue finding safe and effective methods of producing
the food.

This passage is adapted from Virginia Woolf, Three Guineas.
1938 by Harcourt, Inc. Here, Woolf considers the situation
of women in English society.
          Close at hand is a bridge over the River Thames,
          an admirable vantage ground for us to make a
          survey. The river flows beneath; barges pass, laden
Line      with timber, bursting with corn; there on one side are
  5       the domes and spires of the city; on the other,
          Westminster and the Houses of Parliament. It is a
          place to stand on by the hour, dreaming. But not
          now. Now we are pressed for time. Now we are here
          to consider facts; now we must fix our eyes upon the
  10      procession--the procession of the sons of educated
          men.
          There they go, our brothers who have been
          educated at public schools and universities,
          mounting those steps, passing in and out of those
  15      doors, ascending those pulpits, preaching, teaching,
          administering justice, practising medicine,
          transacting business, making money. It is a solemn
          sight always--a procession, like a caravanserai
          crossing a desert. . . . But now, for the past twenty
  20      years or so, it is no longer a sight merely, a
          photograph, or fresco scrawled upon the walls of
          time, at which we can look with merely an esthetic
          appreciation. For there, trapesing along at the tail
          end of the procession, we go ourselves. And that
  25      makes a difference. We who have looked so long at
          the pageant in books, or from a curtained window
          watched educated men leaving the house at about
          nine-thirty to go to an office, returning to the house
          at about six-thirty from an office, need look passively
  30      no longer. We too can leave the house, can mount
          those steps, pass in and out of those doors, . . . make
          money, administer justice. . . . We who now agitate
          these humble pens may in another century or two
          speak from a pulpit. Nobody will dare contradict us
  35      then; we shall be the mouthpieces of the divine
          spirit--a solemn thought, is it not? Who can say
          whether, as time goes on, we may not dress in
          military uniform, with gold lace on our breasts,
          swords at our sides, and something like the old
  40      family coal-scuttle on our heads, save that that
          venerable object was never decorated with plumes of
          white horsehair. You laugh--indeed the shadow of
          the private house still makes those dresses look a
          little queer. We have worn private clothes so
  45      long. . . . But we have not come here to laugh, or to
          talk of fashions--men's and womens. We are here,
          on the bridge, to ask ourselves certain questions.
          And they are very important questions; and we have
          very little time in which to answer them. The
  50      questions that we have to ask and to answer about
          that procession during this moment of transition are
          so important that they may well change the lives of
          all men and women for ever. For we have to ask
          ourselves, here and now, do we wish to join that
  55      procession, or don't we? On what terms shall we join
          that procession? Above all, where is it leading us, the
          procession of educated men? The moment is short; it
          may last five years; ten years, or perhaps only a
          matter of a few months longer. . . . But, you will
  60      object, you have no time to think; you have your
          battles to fight, your rent to pay, your bazaars to
          organize. That excuse shall not serve you, Madam.
          As you know from your own experience, and there
          are facts that prove it, the daughters of educated men
  65      have always done their thinking from hand to
          mouth; not under green lamps at study tables in the
          cloisters of secluded colleges. They have thought
          while they stirred the pot, while they rocked the
          cradle. It was thus that they won us the right to our
  70      brand-new sixpence. It falls to us now to go on
          thinking; how are we to spend that sixpence? Think
          we must. Let us think in offices; in omnibuses; while
          we are standing in the crowd watching Coronations
          and Lord Mayors Shows; let us think . . . in the
  75      gallery of the House of Commons; in the Law Courts;
          let us think at baptisms and marriages and funerals.
          Let us never cease from thinking--what is this
          "civilization" in which we find ourselves? What are
          these ceremonies and why should we take part in
  80      them? What are these professions and why
          should we make money out of them? Where in
          short is it leading us, the procession of the sons of
          educated men? 

This passage is adapted from Francis J. Flynn and Gabrielle
S. Adams, "Money Can't Buy Love: Asymmetric Beliefs about
Gift Price and Feelings of Appreciation." 2008 by Elsevier
Inc.
          Every day, millions of shoppers hit the stores in
          full force--both online and on foot--searching
          frantically for the perfect gift. Last year, Americans
Line      spent over $30 billion at retail stores in the month of
  5       December alone. Aside from purchasing holiday
          gifts, most people regularly buy presents for other
          occasions throughout the year, including weddings,
          birthdays, anniversaries, graduations, and baby
          showers. This frequent experience of gift-giving can
  10      engender ambivalent feelings in gift-givers. Many
          relish the opportunity to buy presents because
          gift-giving offers a powerful means to build stronger
          bonds with ones closest peers. At the same time,
          many dread the thought of buying gifts; they worry
  15      that their purchases will disappoint rather than
          delight the intended recipients.
          Anthropologists describe gift-giving as a positive
          social process, serving various political, religious, and
          psychological functions. Economists, however, offer
  20      a less favorable view. According to Waldfogel (1993),
          gift-giving represents an objective waste of resources.
          People buy gifts that recipients would not choose to
          buy on their own, or at least not spend as much
          money to purchase (a phenomenon referred to as
  25      "the deadweight loss of Christmas"). To wit, givers
          are likely to spend $100 to purchase a gift that
          receivers would spend only $80 to buy themselves.
          This "deadweight loss" suggests that gift-givers are
          not very good at predicting what gifts others will
  30      appreciate. That in itself is not surprising to social
          psychologists. Research has found that people often
          struggle to take account of others perspectives--
          their insights are subject to egocentrism, social
          projection, and multiple attribution errors.
  35      What is surprising is that gift-givers have
          considerable experience acting as both gift-givers and
          gift-recipients, but nevertheless tend to overspend
          each time they set out to purchase a meaningful gift.
          In the present research, we propose a unique
  40      psychological explanation for this overspending
          problem--i.e., that gift-givers equate how much they
          spend with how much recipients will appreciate the
          gift (the more expensive the gift, the stronger a
          gift-recipients feelings of appreciation). Although a
  45      link between gift price and feelings of appreciation
          might seem intuitive to gift-givers, such an
          assumption may be unfounded. Indeed, we propose
          that gift-recipients will be less inclined to base their
          feelings of appreciation on the magnitude of a gift
  50      than givers assume.
          Why do gift-givers assume that gift price is closely
          linked to gift-recipients feelings of appreciation?
          Perhaps givers believe that bigger (i.e., more
          expensive) gifts convey stronger signals of
  55      thoughtfulness and consideration. According to
          Camerer (1988) and others, gift-giving represents a
          symbolic ritual, whereby gift-givers attempt to signal
          their positive attitudes toward the intended recipient
          and their willingness to invest resources in a future
  60      relationship. In this sense, gift-givers may be
          motivated to spend more money on a gift in order to
          send a "stronger signal" to their intended recipient.
          As for gift-recipients, they may not construe smaller
          and larger gifts as representing smaller and larger
  65      signals of thoughtfulness and consideration.
          The notion of gift-givers and gift-recipients being
          unable to account for the other partys perspective
          seems puzzling because people slip in and out of
          these roles every day, and, in some cases, multiple
  70      times in the course of the same day. Yet, despite the
          extensive experience that people have as both givers
          and receivers, they often struggle to transfer
          information gained from one role (e.g., as a giver)
          and apply it in another, complementary role (e.g., as
  75      a receiver). In theoretical terms, people fail to utilize
          information about their own preferences and
          experiences in order to produce more efficient
          outcomes in their exchange relations. In practical
          terms, people spend hundreds of dollars each year on
  80      gifts, but somehow never learn to calibrate their gift
          expenditures according to personal insight.

This passage is adapted from J. D. Watson and F. H. C. Crick,
"Genetical Implications of the Structure of Deoxyribonucleic
Acid." 1953 by Nature Publishing Group. Watson and Crick
deduced the structure of DNA using evidence from Rosalind
Franklin and R. G. Goslings X-ray crystallography diagrams
of DNA and from Erwin Chargaffs data on the base
composition of DNA.

          The chemical formula of deoxyribonucleic acid
          (DNA) is now well established. The molecule is a
          very long chain, the backbone of which consists of a
Line      regular alternation of sugar and phosphate groups.
  5       To each sugar is attached a nitrogenous base, which
          can be of four different types. Two of the possible
          bases--adenine and guanine--are purines, and the
          other two--thymine and cytosine--are pyrimidines.
          So far as is known, the sequence of bases along the
  10      chain is irregular. The monomer unit, consisting of
          phosphate, sugar and base, is known as a nucleotide.
          The first feature of our structure which is of
          biological interest is that it consists not of one chain,
          but of two. These two chains are both coiled around
  15      a common fiber axis. It has often been assumed that
          since there was only one chain in the chemical
          formula there would only be one in the structural
          unit. However, the density, taken with the X-ray
          evidence, suggests very strongly that there are two.
  20      The other biologically important feature is the
          manner in which the two chains are held together.
          This is done by hydrogen bonds between the bases.
          The bases are joined together in pairs, a single base
          from one chain being hydrogen-bonded to a single
  25      base from the other. The important point is that only
          certain pairs of bases will fit into the structure.
          One member of a pair must be a purine and the other
          a pyrimidine in order to bridge between the two
          chains. If a pair consisted of two purines, for
  30      example, there would not be room for it.
          We believe that the bases will be present almost
          entirely in their most probable forms. If this is true,
          the conditions for forming hydrogen bonds are more
          restrictive, and the only pairs of bases possible are:
  35      adenine with thymine, and guanine with cytosine.
          Adenine, for example, can occur on either chain; but
          when it does, its partner on the other chain must
          always be thymine.
          The phosphate-sugar backbone of our model is
  40      completely regular, but any sequence of the pairs of
          bases can fit into the structure. It follows that in a
          long molecule many different permutations are
          possible, and it therefore seems likely that the precise
          sequence of bases is the code which carries the
  45      genetical information. If the actual order of the bases
          on one of the pair of chains were given, one could
          write down the exact order of the bases on the other
          one, because of the specific pairing. Thus one chain
          is, as it were, the complement of the other, and it is
  50      this feature which suggests how the deoxyribonucleic
          acid molecule might duplicate itself.
The table shows, for various organisms, the percentage of
each of the four types of nitrogenous bases in that
organisms DNA. 

This passage is adapted from Virginia Woolf, Three Guineas.
1938 by Harcourt, Inc. Here, Woolf considers the situation
of women in English society.
          Close at hand is a bridge over the River Thames,
          an admirable vantage ground for us to make a
          survey. The river flows beneath; barges pass, laden
Line      with timber, bursting with corn; there on one side are
  5       the domes and spires of the city; on the other,
          Westminster and the Houses of Parliament. It is a
          place to stand on by the hour, dreaming. But not
          now. Now we are pressed for time. Now we are here
          to consider facts; now we must fix our eyes upon the
  10      procession--the procession of the sons of educated
          men.
          There they go, our brothers who have been
          educated at public schools and universities,
          mounting those steps, passing in and out of those
  15      doors, ascending those pulpits, preaching, teaching,
          administering justice, practising medicine,
          transacting business, making money. It is a solemn
          sight always--a procession, like a caravanserai
          crossing a desert. . . . But now, for the past twenty
  20      years or so, it is no longer a sight merely, a
          photograph, or fresco scrawled upon the walls of
          time, at which we can look with merely an esthetic
          appreciation. For there, trapesing along at the tail
          end of the procession, we go ourselves. And that
  25      makes a difference. We who have looked so long at
          the pageant in books, or from a curtained window
          watched educated men leaving the house at about
          nine-thirty to go to an office, returning to the house
          at about six-thirty from an office, need look passively
  30      no longer. We too can leave the house, can mount
          those steps, pass in and out of those doors, . . . make
          money, administer justice. . . . We who now agitate
          these humble pens may in another century or two
          speak from a pulpit. Nobody will dare contradict us
  35      then; we shall be the mouthpieces of the divine
          spirit--a solemn thought, is it not? Who can say
          whether, as time goes on, we may not dress in
          military uniform, with gold lace on our breasts,
          swords at our sides, and something like the old
  40      family coal-scuttle on our heads, save that that
          venerable object was never decorated with plumes of
          white horsehair. You laugh--indeed the shadow of
          the private house still makes those dresses look a
          little queer. We have worn private clothes so
  45      long. . . . But we have not come here to laugh, or to
          talk of fashions--men's and womens. We are here,
          on the bridge, to ask ourselves certain questions.
          And they are very important questions; and we have
          very little time in which to answer them. The
  50      questions that we have to ask and to answer about
          that procession during this moment of transition are
          so important that they may well change the lives of
          all men and women for ever. For we have to ask
          ourselves, here and now, do we wish to join that
  55      procession, or don't we? On what terms shall we join
          that procession? Above all, where is it leading us, the
          procession of educated men? The moment is short; it
          may last five years; ten years, or perhaps only a
          matter of a few months longer. . . . But, you will
  60      object, you have no time to think; you have your
          battles to fight, your rent to pay, your bazaars to
          organize. That excuse shall not serve you, Madam.
          As you know from your own experience, and there
          are facts that prove it, the daughters of educated men
  65      have always done their thinking from hand to
          mouth; not under green lamps at study tables in the
          cloisters of secluded colleges. They have thought
          while they stirred the pot, while they rocked the
          cradle. It was thus that they won us the right to our
  70      brand-new sixpence. It falls to us now to go on
          thinking; how are we to spend that sixpence? Think
          we must. Let us think in offices; in omnibuses; while
          we are standing in the crowd watching Coronations
          and Lord Mayors Shows; let us think . . . in the
  75      gallery of the House of Commons; in the Law Courts;
          let us think at baptisms and marriages and funerals.
          Let us never cease from thinking--what is this
          "civilization" in which we find ourselves? What are
          these ceremonies and why should we take part in
  80      them? What are these professions and why
          should we make money out of them? Where in
          short is it leading us, the procession of the sons of
          educated men? 

This passage is adapted from Francis J. Flynn and Gabrielle
S. Adams, "Money Can't Buy Love: Asymmetric Beliefs about
Gift Price and Feelings of Appreciation." 2008 by Elsevier
Inc.
          Every day, millions of shoppers hit the stores in
          full force--both online and on foot--searching
          frantically for the perfect gift. Last year, Americans
Line      spent over $30 billion at retail stores in the month of
  5       December alone. Aside from purchasing holiday
          gifts, most people regularly buy presents for other
          occasions throughout the year, including weddings,
          birthdays, anniversaries, graduations, and baby
          showers. This frequent experience of gift-giving can
  10      engender ambivalent feelings in gift-givers. Many
          relish the opportunity to buy presents because
          gift-giving offers a powerful means to build stronger
          bonds with ones closest peers. At the same time,
          many dread the thought of buying gifts; they worry
  15      that their purchases will disappoint rather than
          delight the intended recipients.
          Anthropologists describe gift-giving as a positive
          social process, serving various political, religious, and
          psychological functions. Economists, however, offer
  20      a less favorable view. According to Waldfogel (1993),
          gift-giving represents an objective waste of resources.
          People buy gifts that recipients would not choose to
          buy on their own, or at least not spend as much
          money to purchase (a phenomenon referred to as
  25      "the deadweight loss of Christmas"). To wit, givers
          are likely to spend $100 to purchase a gift that
          receivers would spend only $80 to buy themselves.
          This "deadweight loss" suggests that gift-givers are
          not very good at predicting what gifts others will
  30      appreciate. That in itself is not surprising to social
          psychologists. Research has found that people often
          struggle to take account of others perspectives--
          their insights are subject to egocentrism, social
          projection, and multiple attribution errors.
  35      What is surprising is that gift-givers have
          considerable experience acting as both gift-givers and
          gift-recipients, but nevertheless tend to overspend
          each time they set out to purchase a meaningful gift.
          In the present research, we propose a unique
  40      psychological explanation for this overspending
          problem--i.e., that gift-givers equate how much they
          spend with how much recipients will appreciate the
          gift (the more expensive the gift, the stronger a
          gift-recipients feelings of appreciation). Although a
  45      link between gift price and feelings of appreciation
          might seem intuitive to gift-givers, such an
          assumption may be unfounded. Indeed, we propose
          that gift-recipients will be less inclined to base their
          feelings of appreciation on the magnitude of a gift
  50      than givers assume.
          Why do gift-givers assume that gift price is closely
          linked to gift-recipients feelings of appreciation?
          Perhaps givers believe that bigger (i.e., more
          expensive) gifts convey stronger signals of
  55      thoughtfulness and consideration. According to
          Camerer (1988) and others, gift-giving represents a
          symbolic ritual, whereby gift-givers attempt to signal
          their positive attitudes toward the intended recipient
          and their willingness to invest resources in a future
  60      relationship. In this sense, gift-givers may be
          motivated to spend more money on a gift in order to
          send a "stronger signal" to their intended recipient.
          As for gift-recipients, they may not construe smaller
          and larger gifts as representing smaller and larger
  65      signals of thoughtfulness and consideration.
          The notion of gift-givers and gift-recipients being
          unable to account for the other partys perspective
          seems puzzling because people slip in and out of
          these roles every day, and, in some cases, multiple
  70      times in the course of the same day. Yet, despite the
          extensive experience that people have as both givers
          and receivers, they often struggle to transfer
          information gained from one role (e.g., as a giver)
          and apply it in another, complementary role (e.g., as
  75      a receiver). In theoretical terms, people fail to utilize
          information about their own preferences and
          experiences in order to produce more efficient
          outcomes in their exchange relations. In practical
          terms, people spend hundreds of dollars each year on
  80      gifts, but somehow never learn to calibrate their gift
          expenditures according to personal insight.

This passage is adapted from Virginia Woolf, Three Guineas.
1938 by Harcourt, Inc. Here, Woolf considers the situation
of women in English society.
          Close at hand is a bridge over the River Thames,
          an admirable vantage ground for us to make a
          survey. The river flows beneath; barges pass, laden
Line      with timber, bursting with corn; there on one side are
  5       the domes and spires of the city; on the other,
          Westminster and the Houses of Parliament. It is a
          place to stand on by the hour, dreaming. But not
          now. Now we are pressed for time. Now we are here
          to consider facts; now we must fix our eyes upon the
  10      procession--the procession of the sons of educated
          men.
          There they go, our brothers who have been
          educated at public schools and universities,
          mounting those steps, passing in and out of those
  15      doors, ascending those pulpits, preaching, teaching,
          administering justice, practising medicine,
          transacting business, making money. It is a solemn
          sight always--a procession, like a caravanserai
          crossing a desert. . . . But now, for the past twenty
  20      years or so, it is no longer a sight merely, a
          photograph, or fresco scrawled upon the walls of
          time, at which we can look with merely an esthetic
          appreciation. For there, trapesing along at the tail
          end of the procession, we go ourselves. And that
  25      makes a difference. We who have looked so long at
          the pageant in books, or from a curtained window
          watched educated men leaving the house at about
          nine-thirty to go to an office, returning to the house
          at about six-thirty from an office, need look passively
  30      no longer. We too can leave the house, can mount
          those steps, pass in and out of those doors, . . . make
          money, administer justice. . . . We who now agitate
          these humble pens may in another century or two
          speak from a pulpit. Nobody will dare contradict us
  35      then; we shall be the mouthpieces of the divine
          spirit--a solemn thought, is it not? Who can say
          whether, as time goes on, we may not dress in
          military uniform, with gold lace on our breasts,
          swords at our sides, and something like the old
  40      family coal-scuttle on our heads, save that that
          venerable object was never decorated with plumes of
          white horsehair. You laugh--indeed the shadow of
          the private house still makes those dresses look a
          little queer. We have worn private clothes so
  45      long. . . . But we have not come here to laugh, or to
          talk of fashions--men's and womens. We are here,
          on the bridge, to ask ourselves certain questions.
          And they are very important questions; and we have
          very little time in which to answer them. The
  50      questions that we have to ask and to answer about
          that procession during this moment of transition are
          so important that they may well change the lives of
          all men and women for ever. For we have to ask
          ourselves, here and now, do we wish to join that
  55      procession, or don't we? On what terms shall we join
          that procession? Above all, where is it leading us, the
          procession of educated men? The moment is short; it
          may last five years; ten years, or perhaps only a
          matter of a few months longer. . . . But, you will
  60      object, you have no time to think; you have your
          battles to fight, your rent to pay, your bazaars to
          organize. That excuse shall not serve you, Madam.
          As you know from your own experience, and there
          are facts that prove it, the daughters of educated men
  65      have always done their thinking from hand to
          mouth; not under green lamps at study tables in the
          cloisters of secluded colleges. They have thought
          while they stirred the pot, while they rocked the
          cradle. It was thus that they won us the right to our
  70      brand-new sixpence. It falls to us now to go on
          thinking; how are we to spend that sixpence? Think
          we must. Let us think in offices; in omnibuses; while
          we are standing in the crowd watching Coronations
          and Lord Mayors Shows; let us think . . . in the
  75      gallery of the House of Commons; in the Law Courts;
          let us think at baptisms and marriages and funerals.
          Let us never cease from thinking--what is this
          "civilization" in which we find ourselves? What are
          these ceremonies and why should we take part in
  80      them? What are these professions and why
          should we make money out of them? Where in
          short is it leading us, the procession of the sons of
          educated men? 

This passage is adapted from Virginia Woolf, Three Guineas.
1938 by Harcourt, Inc. Here, Woolf considers the situation
of women in English society.
          Close at hand is a bridge over the River Thames,
          an admirable vantage ground for us to make a
          survey. The river flows beneath; barges pass, laden
Line      with timber, bursting with corn; there on one side are
  5       the domes and spires of the city; on the other,
          Westminster and the Houses of Parliament. It is a
          place to stand on by the hour, dreaming. But not
          now. Now we are pressed for time. Now we are here
          to consider facts; now we must fix our eyes upon the
  10      procession--the procession of the sons of educated
          men.
          There they go, our brothers who have been
          educated at public schools and universities,
          mounting those steps, passing in and out of those
  15      doors, ascending those pulpits, preaching, teaching,
          administering justice, practising medicine,
          transacting business, making money. It is a solemn
          sight always--a procession, like a caravanserai
          crossing a desert. . . . But now, for the past twenty
  20      years or so, it is no longer a sight merely, a
          photograph, or fresco scrawled upon the walls of
          time, at which we can look with merely an esthetic
          appreciation. For there, trapesing along at the tail
          end of the procession, we go ourselves. And that
  25      makes a difference. We who have looked so long at
          the pageant in books, or from a curtained window
          watched educated men leaving the house at about
          nine-thirty to go to an office, returning to the house
          at about six-thirty from an office, need look passively
  30      no longer. We too can leave the house, can mount
          those steps, pass in and out of those doors, . . . make
          money, administer justice. . . . We who now agitate
          these humble pens may in another century or two
          speak from a pulpit. Nobody will dare contradict us
  35      then; we shall be the mouthpieces of the divine
          spirit--a solemn thought, is it not? Who can say
          whether, as time goes on, we may not dress in
          military uniform, with gold lace on our breasts,
          swords at our sides, and something like the old
  40      family coal-scuttle on our heads, save that that
          venerable object was never decorated with plumes of
          white horsehair. You laugh--indeed the shadow of
          the private house still makes those dresses look a
          little queer. We have worn private clothes so
  45      long. . . . But we have not come here to laugh, or to
          talk of fashions--men's and womens. We are here,
          on the bridge, to ask ourselves certain questions.
          And they are very important questions; and we have
          very little time in which to answer them. The
  50      questions that we have to ask and to answer about
          that procession during this moment of transition are
          so important that they may well change the lives of
          all men and women for ever. For we have to ask
          ourselves, here and now, do we wish to join that
  55      procession, or don't we? On what terms shall we join
          that procession? Above all, where is it leading us, the
          procession of educated men? The moment is short; it
          may last five years; ten years, or perhaps only a
          matter of a few months longer. . . . But, you will
  60      object, you have no time to think; you have your
          battles to fight, your rent to pay, your bazaars to
          organize. That excuse shall not serve you, Madam.
          As you know from your own experience, and there
          are facts that prove it, the daughters of educated men
  65      have always done their thinking from hand to
          mouth; not under green lamps at study tables in the
          cloisters of secluded colleges. They have thought
          while they stirred the pot, while they rocked the
          cradle. It was thus that they won us the right to our
  70      brand-new sixpence. It falls to us now to go on
          thinking; how are we to spend that sixpence? Think
          we must. Let us think in offices; in omnibuses; while
          we are standing in the crowd watching Coronations
          and Lord Mayors Shows; let us think . . . in the
  75      gallery of the House of Commons; in the Law Courts;
          let us think at baptisms and marriages and funerals.
          Let us never cease from thinking--what is this
          "civilization" in which we find ourselves? What are
          these ceremonies and why should we take part in
  80      them? What are these professions and why
          should we make money out of them? Where in
          short is it leading us, the procession of the sons of
          educated men?