Sociology Mock Test - 1

The correct answer is GH Mead.

Key Points

• Cooley's ideas were expanded by George Herbert Mead (1863-1931).
• GH Mead linked the concept of self-concept to role-playing. Hence option 1) is correct.
• Role-Playing is the process by which a person mentally assumes the role of another person or group in order to understand the world from that person's or group's perspective.
• As children try on various roles (such as mommy, daddy, doctor, or teacher) and develop an appreciation for them.  
• By assuming the roles of others, the individual aims to determine the intent or direction of others' actions.
• The person then learns to create his or her own roles (role-making) and predict the reactions of others.
• The self, according to Mead (1934), is separated into two parts: "I" and "me."
• The 'I' is the subjective aspect of the self, representing each person's spontaneous and distinct characteristics.
• The objective portion of the self is the "me," which is made up of internalized attitudes and demands from other members of society, as well as the individual's awareness of those demands.

The correct answer is W I Thomas.

Key Points

• The Thomas theorem is a theory of sociology that was formulated in 1928 by William Isaac Thomas and Dorothy Swaine Thomas.
• If men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences.
• In other words, the interpretation of a situation causes the action.
• This interpretation is not objective. Actions are affected by subjective perceptions of situations.
• The definition of the situation is a fundamental concept in symbolic interactionism.
• It involves a proposal upon the characteristics of a social situation (e.g. norms, values, authority, participants' roles), and seeks agreement from others in a way that can facilitate social cohesion and social action.
• Conflicts often involve disagreements over definitions of the situation in question.
• This definition may thus become an area contested between different stakeholders (or by an ego's sense of self-identity).

Important Points

• Herbert Spencer- a sociologist famous for his hypothesis of social Darwinism whereby superior physical force shapes history.
• Max Weber - Weber is also known for his thesis combining economic sociology and the sociology of religion, emphasizing the importance of cultural influences embedded in religion as driving factors of capitalism.
• Comte - was a French philosopher and author who developed the positivist theory.
  • He is frequently referred to as the "first philosopher of science" in the contemporary sense.
  • Comte's theories were also important in the formation of sociology; in fact, he coined the name and saw sociology as the pinnacle of the sciences.

The correct answer is Durkheim.

Key Points

• Collective representations are conceptions, ideas, categories, and beliefs that are the result of a social collectivity rather than solitary individuals.
• The phrase "collective representations" was coined by Durkheim to emphasize how many of the categories we use every day–space, time, class, number, and so on–were actually the result of collective social life. Hence option 2) is correct.
• "Collective representations are the consequence of enormous collaboration that extends not only in space but also in time."
• Self-referencing institutions provide slow-changing collective representations that are backed by a social authority.
• Durkheim’s theory of collective representations was taken up by the anthropologist Levy-Bruhl, who argued for seeing magic and religion as the product of collective representations infused with emotional participation (as in powerful rituals).
• In the context of genocide, collective representations are a topic of research, as is the role of the media in the construction of collective representations (where the media is the agent of representation and the victims and perpetrators become the subject of representation, even in their own first-hand accounts and testimonies 

The correct answer is All the above.

Key Points

• Agents of socialization or institutions that can imprint social norms on a person are as follows-
  • The family,
  • religion,
  • peer groups,
  • economic systems,
  • Legal systems,
  • criminal systems,
  • language, and
  • the media.
• Family is the first agent of socialization.
  • Mothers and fathers, siblings and grandparents, plus members of an extended family, all teach a child what he or she needs to know.
  • For example, they show the child how to use objects (such as clothes, computers, eating utensils, books, and bikes.
  • How to relate to others (some as “family,” others as “friends,” still others as “strangers” or “teachers” or “neighbors”).
• Peer Groups-A peer group is made up of people who are similar in age and social status and who share interests.
  • Peer groups provide adolescents’ first major socialization experience outside the realm of their families.
• Religion-While some faiths are informal institutions, this article focuses on formal institutions' practices.
  •  For some people, important ceremonies related to family structure—like marriage and birth—are connected to religious celebrations.
• Mass media distribute impersonal information to a wide audience, via television, newspapers, radio, and the Internet. 

The correct answer is Adult socialization.

Key Points

• Adult socialization, in a contrast to childhood socialization, is the process of learning the practices and expectations connected with a social role or social environment in adulthood.
  • Adult socialization describes how adults adjust to new situations and positions, as well as how they learn to satisfy relevant expectations. 
  • Adult socialization occurs as people age and as they take on new jobs (a new manager, for example, must learn to act like a manager).
  • A young adult, for example, has different social expectations than an elderly person.
  • Adult socialization is frequently regarded as less important than childhood socialization by researchers.
• Primary socialization - Primary socialization is crucial for a child because it lays the foundation for all subsequent socialization.
  • When a youngster learns the attitudes, values, and acts that are proper for persons as members of a given culture, this is known as primary socialization.
  • It is primarily impacted by close relatives and friends.​
• ​Secondary socialization is the process of learning how to behave properly as a member of a smaller group inside a larger society.
  • Is, in essence, the socializing agents of society reinforcing behavioral tendencies.
  • Secondary socialization takes place outside the home. 

Important Points

• Personality-Individual variances in thinking, feeling, and behaving patterns are referred to as personality.
  • Understanding individual variances in particular personality qualities, such as friendliness or irritability, is one of the main goals of personality research.
  • The other is comprehending how a person's diverse pieces come together as a whole.

The correct answer is Socialisation.

Key Points

• Socialization is the process of internalizing the norms and ideologies of society.
• Socialization encompasses both learning and teaching and is thus "the means by which social and cultural continuity are attained".
• Humans need social experiences to learn their culture and to survive. Hence option 1) is correct.
• Socialization essentially represents the whole process of learning throughout the life course and is a central influence on the behavior, beliefs, and actions of adults as well as children.

Important Points

• Internalization is the outcome of a conscious mind reasoning about a specific subject; the subject is internalized, and the consideration of the subject is internal. 
  • Internalization involves the integration of attitudes, values, standards, and the opinions of others into one's own identity or sense of self.
  • In psychoanalytic theory, internalization is a process involving the formation of the super ego.
• ​Sanskritisation is a term in sociology that refers to the process by which castes or tribes placed lower in the caste hierarchy seek upward mobility by emulating the rituals and practices of the dominant castes or upper castes.
  • It is a process similar to "passing" in sociological terms. 
  • This term was made popular by Indian sociologist M. N. Srinivas in the 1950s.
• Modernization theory is used to explain the process of modernization within societies.
  • Modernization theory originated from the ideas of German sociologist Max Weber (1864–1920).
  • Modernization refers to a model of a progressive transition from a 'pre-modern' or 'traditional' to a 'modern' society.
  • Modernization theory suggests that traditional societies will develop as they adopt more modern practices.
  • Proponents of modernization theory claim that modern states are wealthier and more powerful and that their citizens are freer to enjoy a higher standard of living.

The correct answer is The culture of that society.

Key Points

• In the eighteenth century, English anthropologist E. B. Taylor was the first to invent the term "culture."
• Because culture and society are intertwined, a study of society is incomplete without a thorough understanding of its culture. Hence option 1) is correct.
• Man is born into and grows up in a cultural setting.
• Culture is man's distinguishing feature that distinguishes him from other animals.
• All that a person gets in his social life is considered culture.
• E.B. Taylor defined culture as “that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morale, laws, custom and any other capabilities and habits as acquired by man as a member of society.”
• Malinowski defined it as “the handwork of man and the medium through which he achieves his ends.”

Important Points

• Characteristics of Culture:
  • ​​Culture is social: It grows as a result of social interaction.
    • Only among men does a man become a man.
    • No one can learn about culture without interacting with others.
  • Culture is shared: In a sociological sense, culture is shared.
    • People in a group or community, for example, share customs, traditions, beliefs, ideas, values, and morale.
  • Culture is learned: "Learned modes of behavior" is a term that is frequently used to describe culture.
    • Unlearned behavior isn't the same as culture.
    • Shaking hands, saying "thank you" or "namaskar," and clothing are examples of cultural behavior.
  • Culture is transmissive: Culture is primarily expressed through language.
    • Language, in various forms, allows the current generation to comprehend the accomplishments of previous generations.
    • Culture can be passed down down the generations through both imitation and education.
  • Culture varies from society to society: Every society has its own distinct culture.
    • Customs, traditions, morals, values, and beliefs are not universal across cultures.
    • Culture changes with time as well.

The correct answer is Maclver and Page.

Key Points

• Culture, according to sociologists, comprises of the values, beliefs, language, communication, and practice systems that people share and can be used to characterize them as a group.
• Material artifacts that are common to that group or society are also considered part of the culture.
• Culture is separate from society's social structure and economic components, but it is intertwined with both, both informing and being informed by them.
• MacIver defines, “Culture is the expression of own nature in our modes of living and of thinking in our everyday intercourse in art, in literature, in religion, in recreation and enjoyments”. 
• Page also has given a similar definition of culture i.e culture is the "realm of styles, of values, of emotional attachment, of intellectual adventures".

Important Points

• Edward. B. Tylor has defined that “culture is the complex which includes knowledge, belief, morals, art, law, customs and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.”
• Robert Bierstedt is of the opinion that ‘culture is the complex whole that consists of all the ways we think and do and everything we have as members of society.’
• C. North is of the opinion that culture ‘consists in the instruments constituted by man to assist him in satisfying his wants.’
• Mazumdar defined that “culture is the sum total of human achievements material as well as non-material, capable of transmission by tradition and communication vertically as well as horizontally.”
• Malinowski has defined culture as the ‘cumulative creation of man.’ He also regards culture as the handwork of man and the medium through which he achieves his ends.

The correct answer is Similar circumstances.

Key Points

• A peer group is a social group as well as a major group of people who share similar interests (homophily), age, background, or socioeconomic standing, according to sociology.
• This group's members are likely to have an impact on the person's opinions and actions.
• Peer groups go through a lot of changes during adolescence.
• Adolescents spend more time with their peers and are less supervised by adults.
• During this period, adolescent communication changes as well. 

Important Points

• Cliques - They are small groups of people who share similar interests or are pals.
  • Cliques usually consist of 2–12 people and are created based on age, gender, race, and socioeconomic class.
  • In terms of academics and risky behavior, clique members are usually the same.
  • Cliques can act as a socialization and social control tool.
  • Being a part of a clique can be beneficial since it can provide you a sense of autonomy, a safe social environment, and overall happiness.
• Crowds are larger, more ill-defined gatherings that may or may not be made up of friends.
  • Crowds act as peer groups, and their prominence rises during early adolescence and declines as adolescence progresses.
  • Crowds are defined by their level of involvement in adult institutions and peer culture.

The correct answer is a Specific guide to action.

Key Points

• Norms are a fundamental concept in the social sciences and are a specific guide to actions.
• They are most commonly defined as rules or expectations that are socially enforced.
• The normative dimension consists of folkways, mores, customs, conventions, and laws.
• These are values that guide social behavior in different contexts.
• Norms may be prescriptive (encouraging positive behavior; for example, “be honest”) or proscriptive (discouraging negative behavior; for example, “do not cheat”).
• While norms are implicit rules, laws are explicit rules.
• Pierre Bourdieu, the French sociologist has reminded us that when we try to understand another culture’s norms, we must remember that there are certain implicit understandings.
• For example, if a person wants to show gratitude for something s/he has been given, s/he should not offer a return gift too quickly, or it seems like an attempt to get rid of debt, not a friendly gesture.

Important Points

• Laws, which derive from the authority of the State are the most formal definitions of acceptable behavior.
• While different schools may establish different norms for students, laws would apply to all those accepting the authority of the State.
• Unlike laws, norms can vary according to status.
• Dominant sections of society apply dominant norms. Often these norms are discriminating.
• For example, norms that did not allow dalits from drinking water from the same vessel or even source. Women from moving freely in the public sphere.

The correct answer is Good and desirable.

Key Points

• Values: Ideas held by human individuals or groups about what is desirable, proper, good or bad. Hence option 3) is correct.
• Differing values represent key aspects of variations in human culture.
• The norms and values may differ within a society in different families belonging to different castes, regions or social classes or religious groups according to whether one lives in a village or a city or one belongs to a tribe and if to a tribe, to which tribe.
• Indeed the very language that one speaks depends on the region one comes from.

Additional InformationNorms - While norms are implicit rules, laws are explicit rules.

• • Pierre Bourdieu, the French sociologist has reminded us that when we try to understand another culture’s norms, we must remember that there are certain implicit understandings.
  • For example, if a person wants to show gratitude for something s/he has been given, s/he should not offer a return gift too quickly, or it seems like an attempt to get rid of debt, not a friendly gesture.

The correct answer is Anticipatory socialization.

Key Points

• Anticipatory socialization is the process of non-group members learning to adopt the values and norms of groups they desire to join, aided by social contacts, in order to simplify their entry into the group and let them interact competently after they have been accepted.
• It involves changing one's attitudes and behaviors in preparation for a shift in one's role.
• Grooming, play-acting, training, and rehearsing are some of the terms used to describe anticipatory socialization.
• Law students learning how to act as attorneys, older persons preparing for retirement, and Mormon youths preparing to become missionaries are all examples of anticipatory socialization.
• The notion of anticipatory socialization was coined by sociologist Robert K. Merton in a 1949 study of the US military.
• Which indicated that privates who modeled their attitudes and behaviors after those of officers were more likely to be promoted than those who did not.

The correct answer is Habits, tendencies and thinking.

Key Points

• The distinctive ways in which we define our existence are referred to as self and personality.
• They also pertain to how our experiences are organized and manifested in our actions.
• In psychological terms, personality refers to our characteristic ways of responding to individuals and situations.
• People can easily describe the way in which they respond to various situations.
• Certain catchwords (e.g., shy, sensitive, quiet, concerned, warm, etc.) are often used to describe personalities.
• Personality embraces moods, attitudes, habits, and opinions and is most clearly expressed in interactions with other people
• These words refer to different components of personality. Hence option 1) is correct.
• In this sense, personality refers to unique and relatively stable qualities that characterize an individual’s behavior across different situations over a period of time.

The correct answer is Isolation.

Key Points

• Isolation is defined as a lack of conversational connection or social contact.
• It's a lonely situation with no social ties.
• Individuals and groups can both be isolated.
• Isolation has significant repercussions in both circumstances.
• Absolute isolation, in the sense that a person has no interaction with other people at any moment, is, of course, totally imaginary.
• Two main types of isolation may be distinguished—spatial isolation and organic isolation.
• Spatial isolation is external.
  • It is an enforced deprivation of contact for criminals when somebody is banished from the community or put to solitary imprisonment.
  • The individual in such cases is deprived of the protection of his group.
  • Individuals exposed to a spatial isolator become aggressive and more likely to engage in antisocial behavior.
  • It was once assumed that solitary confinement would enhance the convicts' character, but it had the opposite effect.
  • It resulted in depressed mental states, sexual abnormalities, and anti-social behavior.
• ​Organic isolation refers to isolation induced by an individual's organic abnormalities, such as deafness or blindness.
  • It is organic rather than imposed by an external authority.
  • The deaf and blind are denied experiences that all healthy males have. 

The correct answer is Socialisation.

Key Points

• Sociology is learning that occurs on a larger scale than individual or group learning, up to a societal level, through peer social interaction.
• It may or may not result in a shift in mindset and behavior.
• It is a process of social changSociologye in which people learn from each other in ways that can benefit wider social-ecological systems.
• Different social contexts allow individuals to pick up new behaviors by observing what people are doing within that environment.
• Sociology emphasizes the dynamic interaction between people and the environment in the construction of meaning and identity.
• The process of learning a new behavior starts by observing behavior, taking the information in, and finally adopting that behavior.
• Examples of environmental contexts that promote social learning are schools, media, family members and friends.
• If learning is to be considered as social, then it must:
  • demonstrate that a change in understanding has taken place in the individuals involved;
  • demonstrate that this change goes beyond the individual and becomes situated within wider social units or communities of practice;
  • occur through social interactions and processes between actors within a social network.
     

The correct answer is Reference groups.

Key Points

• There are always other groups of individuals that a group of people looks up to and aspires to be like.
• Reference groups are those whose lifestyles are modeled after. Hence option 3) is correct.
• We do not belong to our reference groups but we do identify ourselves with that group.
• Reference groups are important sources of information about culture, lifestyle, aspirations, and goal attainments.
• In the colonial period, many middle-class Indians aspired to behave like proper Englishman.
• In that sense, they could be seen as a reference group for the aspiring section.
• But this process was gendered, i.e. it had different implications for men and women.
• Often Indian men wanted to dress and dine like the British men but wanted the Indian women to remain ‘Indian’ in their ways.
• Or aspire to be a bit like the proper English woman but also not quite like her.
• But this is not valid today.

The correct answer is Customs.

Key Points

• A custom is a cultural concept that represents a predictable, repetitive pattern of conduct that is deemed typical of life in a social system.
• Handshakes, bows, and kisses are all traditional ways of greeting someone.
• The most popular way in a given community aids in the differentiation of one culture from another.
• As new members of a group learn about old customs through socialization, they can last for decades.
• Most people, as members of society, follow customs without really understanding why they exist or how they came to be.
• Often, societal customs develop out of habit. 
• The complexity of the study of customs was emphasized by anthropologist Ruth Benedict.
• Who noted in the 1930s that traditional customs the world over consisted of a mass of detailed behaviors more varied than that which any one person could ever evolve individually.

The correct answer Malinowski.

Key Points

• ​Bronisaw Kasper Malinowski (7 April 1884 – 16 May 1942) was a Polish-British anthropologist whose writings on ethnography, social theory, and field research influenced anthropology for decades.
• Malinowski reconstructed the history of human societies on the basis of items of cultures being transmitted from one culture to another.
• Evolved a geographical approach to study the growth of human society.
• He focused on groups from culture-specific areas, comparisons across cultures and described evolutionary processes of human civilization.
• Malinowski’s work was largely a product of the ideas of his predecessors.
• Leach (1957: 137) concluded his essay on Malinowski by saying that “Malinowski... was ‘in bondage’ to his predecessors; he resented their existence because he was so much indebted to them”.
• In a way this can be said about any thinker who has advanced the thought of his or her times.

The correct answer is Malinowski.

Key Points

• Bronislaw Kaspar Malinowski (1884–1942) was a Polish-born social anthropologist who began his career and professional studies in England in 1910
• Malinowski is credited with pioneering the functionalist approach to cultural analysis.
• Although he used the term "function" throughout his career, from his early scholarly research on the Australian aboriginal family in 1913 to his final theoretical statement in A Scientific Theory of Culture (1944).
• His use of the term was open-ended, exploratory, and subject to constant modification.
• He viewed culture as a collection of objects and organized traditions through which an individual is shaped and a social group maintains its integration and continuity.
• But he also saw culture as an instrumental reality, deriving from human wants ranging from the most fundamental universal needs of an individual organism to the highly sophisticated and often specialized needs of a complex community. Hence option 3) is correct.
• Functionalism, in his opinion, was a research tool, "the prerequisite for fieldwork and for the comparative investigation of phenomena in diverse cultures" (1944a, p. 175), that allowed for the in-depth study of cultural characteristics.
• A functionalist approach exposed the multiple links between man as a psychobiological creature and his product, culture, through an intermediate analysis of institutions.

The correct answer is Redfield.

Key Points

• Robert Redfield (December 4, 1897 – October 16, 1958) was an anthropologist and ethnolinguist who is remembered for his anthropological studies in Tepoztlán, Mexico.
• In 1923, he journeyed to Mexico with his wife Margaret, where he met Manuel Gamio, a Mexican anthropologist who had studied with Franz Boas.
• He authored The Primitive World and its Transformation in 1953, The folk culture of Yucatan , and Peasant Society and Culture in 1956 after a series of published field studies from Mexican villages (Tepoztlán in Morelos and Chan Kom in Yucatán). Hence option 3) is correct.

Important Points

• Redfield's published works include:
  • ​Tepoztlan, a Mexican Village: A Study in Folk Life. Chicago: University of Chicago Press (1930).
  • Folk Cultures of the Yucatán. Chicago: University of Chicago Press (1948).
  • The Primitive World and Its Transformations. Ithaca: Cornell University Press (1953).
  • The Role of Cities in Economic Development and Cultural Change. Chicago: University of Chicago Press (1954).
  • The Little Community. Chicago: University of Chicago Press (1956).

The correct answer is Redfield.

Key Points

• Culture, according to Redfield, is "an organized body of customary understandings manifested in art and artifacts that characterizes a human group via tradition." Hence option 1) is correct.
• The phrases "acquired by man" and "persisting via tradition" bring two fundamental aspects of culture into prominence.
• A human child, as he grows up, learns gradually from parents or from members of the group among whom he is born and among whom he lives.
• Learning reveals that culture cannot be acquired in isolation from society.
• To put it another way, culture has a social framework.
• The word 'persisting via tradition,' coined by Redfield, refers to the important fact that what is taught in one generation is passed down to succeeding generations.

The correct answer is Cultural lag.

Key Points

• Cultural lag refers to the disparity between material and non-material cultures. Hence option 3) is correct.
• The term "cultural lag" relates to the idea that culture takes time to catch up with technological advancements, as well as the accompanying societal issues.
• In other words, cultural lag arises when the rate of progress in different aspects of culture is unequal, resulting in a divide between material and non-material cultures.
• As a result, cultural lag refers not just to this concept, but also to theory and explanation.
• It assists in predicting future difficulties in society by detecting and describing social problems.
• Social Change with Respect to Culture and Original Nature, written by William F. Ogburn in 1922, was the first publication to use the term.
• As explained by James W. Woodward, when the material conditions change, changes are occasioned in the adaptive culture, but these changes in the adaptive culture do not synchronize exactly with the change in the material culture, this delay is the culture lag.

The correct answer is Explicit Norm.

Key Points

• A norm may or may not have a reasonable basis or genesis.
• Common sense norms may lose their initial context as society evolves: behavior that was conducted because it was necessary for existence may evolve into a social standard over time, even if the circumstances that made it necessary for survival are no longer relevant.
• At least two variables contribute to the stability of a norm.
• To begin with, people are socialized to follow a set of rules, and the vast majority will not disagree.
• Second, even if an individual does not choose to follow a rule, societal pressure may compel them to do so.
• Drawing on (and revising) reference group and socialization theories, and Griffith's (1990) distinction between rules and norms.
• Explicit norms
  • ​They are defined as those norms that are codified in formal written documents. Hence option 2) is correct.
  • Such as FAQs (frequently asked questions), which explicitly outline the purpose and rules of the group.
• Implicit norms
  • They are not formally codified in documents such as FAQs but emerge through the day-to-day interactions of the group.
  • These norms may or may not ultimately be added to FAQs, but they are understood and used informally to define acceptable behavior within the group.

The correct answer is Social Interaction.

Key Points

• A social interaction is an exchange between two or more individuals and is a building block of society.
• Social interaction can be studied between groups of two (dyads), three (triads) or larger social groups.
• A social interaction is a social exchange between two or more individuals.
• These interactions form the basis for social structure and therefore are a key object of basic social inquiry and analysis. Hence option 2) is correct.
• Societal interactions are the foundation of social institutions and cultures.
• People create the laws, institutions, and systems in which they want to live by interacting with one another.
• Symbols are employed to express a society's expectations to people who are new to it, such as children or outsiders.
• One can see how social contact is at the heart of this wide schema of social development.

The correct answer is Greek.

Key Points

• Logos is a Greek word that means "base," "plea," "opinion," "expectation," "word," "speak," "account," "reason," "proportion," and "discourse" in Western philosophy, psychology, rhetoric, and religion.
• Today, many people may discuss the logos qualities of a text to refer to how strong the logic or reasoning of the text is.
• But logos more closely refers to the structure and content of the text itself. In this resource, logos means “text.”
• Logos became a technical term in Western philosophy beginning with Heraclitus (c. 535 – c. 475 BC), who used the term for a principle of order and knowledge.
• Ancient Greek philosophers used the term in different ways. 

The correct answer is Comte. 

Key Points

• Auguste Comte, the founding father of sociology defines sociology as the science of social phenomena "subject to natural and invariable laws, the discovery of which is the object of investigation". Hence option 4) is correct. 
• Isidore Marie Auguste François Xavier Comte was a French philosopher and author who developed the positivist theory.
• He is frequently referred to as the "first philosopher of science" in the contemporary sense.
• Comte's theories were also important in the formation of sociology; in fact, he coined the name and saw sociology as the pinnacle of the sciences.
• The Course in Positive Philosophy, a set of texts published between 1830 and 1842, was the first to articulate positivism's epistemological approach.
• The publication A General View of Positivism, published in 1848, followed these texts (published in English in 1865).
• The first three volumes of the Course focused on the existing physical sciences (mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, and biology), whereas the latter two focused on the impending arrival of social science.

The correct answer is Social Pathology.

Key Points

• Social pathology is a term used in modern social science to describe features of social structures as well as the behaviors and values associated with specific social groups.
• Social pathology definitions are historically unique and reflect the dominant moral concerns of the moment.
• This viewpoint is consistent with anthropologist Mary Douglas' beliefs.
• She investigates the universality of cultural explanations of items judged "out of order" as contaminating and hazardous in Purity and Danger (1966).
• Social pathology is performing any act out of the courtesy which leads to a futile society and pathology is the treatment in sociology to understand the causes and precautions related to social pathology.
• For instance, the crimes are considered as social pathology as it is the deviant from normal behavior.

The correct answer is Mills.

Key Points

• The father of sociological imagination, C Wright Mills, founded this field of thinking in the mid-20th century.
• At the time he wrote, “Neither the life of an individual nor the history of a society can be understood without understanding both.”
• Just the same, it’s also important to put Mills’ theories into context.
• Mills' sociological contemporaries tended to focus on understanding systems rather than individual difficulties.
• (Take structural functionalism, for example.) However, Mills contended that viewing society as a collection of systems was inaccurate.
• It also neglected the individual's function inside those systems, which was vital.
• He believed that looking at a balance between systems and the individuals within them was essential to understanding their collective relationship, as well as the social structures that arise out of the conflict between various groups.
• This perspective also helps enable sociologists to do more than observe, but to expose social injustice, and act and change the world.

The correct answer is Sociological Imagination.

Key Points

• The sociological imagination, a concept established by C. Wright Mills (1916-1962) provides a framework for understanding our social world that far surpasses any common sense notion we might derive from our limited social experiences.
• Mills was a contemporary sociologist who brought tremendous insight into the daily lives of society’s members.
• Mills stated: “Neither the life of an individual nor the history of a society can be understood without understanding both”.
• The sociological imagination is making the connection between personal challenges and larger social issues.
• Mills identified “troubles” (personal challenges) and “issues” (larger social challenges), also known as biography, and history, respectively.
• Mills’ sociological imagination allows individuals to see the relationships between events in their personal lives (biography), and events in their society (history).
• In other words, this mindset provides the ability for individuals to realize the relationship between their personal experiences and the larger society in which they live their lives

The correct answer is 1909.

Key Points

• Social Organization: a Study of the Larger Mind was written by Charles Horton Cooley in 1909.
• This work attempts to motivate man and society to be more responsive to each other.
• In Social Organization (1909, reprinted 1956), Cooley outlined the objective consequences of his psychological views.
• He argued that the ideal of the moral unity of society, involving qualities of loyalty, justice, and freedom, was derived from face-to-face relationships in primary groups such as the family and neighborhood or children’s playgroups.
• In his last major work, Social Process (1918, reprinted 1966), he applied the Darwinian principles of natural selection and adaptation to collective (social) existence.
• Cooley argued that social reality differed qualitatively from physical reality and was thus more difficult to quantify.
• He was more prolific as a social theorist than as a research scientist because of this viewpoint.
• Human Nature and the Social Order (1902, republished 1956) examined how interaction with people shapes one's identity.

The correct answer is Intimate face to face association.

Key Points

• The first sociologist to call attention to primary groups was Charles H. Cooley, who described them as follows:-
• By primary groups I mean those characterized by intimate face-to-face association and co-operation. Hence option 3) is correct.
• They are primary, in several senses, but chiefly in that, they are fundamental in framing the social nature and ideals of the individual.
• Characteristics of a Primary Group:
  • ​In order that relations of the people may be close, it is necessary that their contacts also should be close.
  • Relationships can be intimate and personal only in a small group.
  • Stability- To promote the intimacy of a relationship, the primary group should be stable to some extent.
  • The similarity of background- The members of a primary group must be not only close and near to each other but also approximately equally experienced and intelligent.
  • Limited Self-interest- Though members join the group with the motive of satisfying their own interests, yet they should subordinate their interests to the central interests of the group.

The correct answer is Charles Abram Ellwood.

Key Points

• A social group: is a collection of two or more individuals in which there are psychological interactions and reciprocal roles based upon durable contacts, shared norms and interests, distinctive patterns of collective behavior and structural organization of leadership and followership.
• According to Charles A.Ellwood, He distinguished among.
  • Involuntary and voluntary groups, Hence option 1) is correct.
  • Institutional and non-institutional groups
  • Temporary and permanent groups.
• Leopold, he classified groups into
  • Crowd
  • Groups and
  •  Abstract collectives
• According to Park and Burgers , They distinguished the groups as territorial and non-territorial group.

The correct answer is W G Summer. 

Key Points

• An in-group is a social group to which a person mentally identifies as a member in sociology and social psychology.
  • An illustrative example of the way this phenomenon takes place can be demonstrated just by arbitrarily assigning a person to a distinct and objectively meaningless novel group; this alone is sufficient to create intergroup biases in which members of the perceiver’s own group are preferentially favored.
• An out-group, on the other hand, is a social group with which a person does not identify.
  • Discrimination between in-groups and out-groups is a matter of favoritism towards an in-group and the absence of equivalent favoritism towards an out-group
• People may identify with their peers, families, communities, sports teams, political parties, gender, race, religion, or nation, for example.
• It has been discovered that psychological participation in social groups and categories is linked to a wide range of events. 
• William Graham Sumner (October 30, 1840 – April 12, 1910) was a classical liberal American social scientist. who gave this terminology of the group as in group and out the group. Hence option 1) is correct.
• He taught social sciences at Yale, where he held the nation's first professorship in sociology. 

The correct answer is In group.

Key Points

• In sociology and social psychology, an in-group is a social group to which a person psychologically identifies as being a member. Hence option 2) is correct.
• By contrast, an out-group is a social group with which an individual does not identify.
• It has been found that the psychological membership of social groups and categories is associated with a wide variety of phenomena.
• People may identify with their peer group, family, community, sports team, political party, gender, race, religion, or nation, to name a few examples.
• A wide range of phenomena has been linked to psychological membership in social groups and categories.
• People may harm those whom they perceive to be in an out-group in ways that they would not harm in-group members.
• For example, one study showed that when soccer fans viewed fans of their own team being harmed, they felt empathy.
• But when they viewed fans of a rival team being similarly harmed, they felt pleasure.
• Indeed, when automatic in-group and out-group distinctions replace conscious and thoughtful reflection, we are more likely to harm one another and behave unethically.

The correct answer is Muzafer Sherif.

Key Points

• Sherif was a founder of modern social psychology who developed several unique and powerful techniques for understanding social processes, particularly social norms and social conflict. Hence option 1) is correct.
• Many of his original contributions to social psychology have been absorbed into the field so fully that his role in the development and discovery has disappeared.
• Other reformation of social psychology has taken his contributions for granted, and re-presented his ideas as new.
• In 1947, he published his first book, The Psychology of Ego Involvements, co-written with Hadley Cantril.
• In it, he compared Soviet and American societies, by showing different values and beliefs of the nations which flowed from different social and cultural contexts. With it, he posited that individualistic, competitive and conflictual society is avoidable.
• Sherif made contributions to social psychological theory, field and laboratory methodology, and to the application of research to social issues.
• He wrote more than 60 articles and 24 books.
• The majority of his research was done with his wife, Carolyn Wood Sherif.

The correct answer is Formal.

Key Points

• Bureaucratic control is the use of formal systems of rules, roles, records, and rewards to influence, monitor, and assess employee performance. Hence option 3) is correct.
• Rules set the requirements for behavior and define work methods.
• Roles are assigned responsibilities and establish levels of authority.
• Records document activities and verify outcomes.
• Rewards provide incentives for achievement and recognize performance relative to goals or standards.
• Organizations use these systems when their size and complexity make more informal practices based solely on interpersonal communication and relationships impractical, unreliable, and ineffective.
• Bureaucratic controls are intended to help an organization achieve its goals by shaping how employees perform, creating accountability for outcomes, tracking actual performance, and correcting behavior when necessary.

The correct answer is Formal.

Key Points

• Social control is a concept within the disciplines of the social sciences.
• Social control is described as a certain set of rules and standards in society that keep individuals bound to conventional standards as well as to the use of formalized mechanisms.
• The disciplinary model was the forerunner to the control model.
• Informal means of control – Internalization of norms and values by a process known as socialization, which is "the process by which an individual, born with behavioral potentialities of enormously wide range, is led to develop actual behavior which is confined to the narrower range of what is acceptable for him by the group standards".
• Formal means of social control – External sanctions enforced by the government to prevent the establishment of chaos or anomie in society.
  • Some theorists, such as Émile Durkheim, refer to this form of control as regulation.
  • This is mainly found in primary social institutions. Hence option 2) is correct.

The correct answer is Orburn & Nimcoff.

Key Points

• Robert Bierstedt -‘Family is a more or less durable association of husband and wife, with or without a child, or of a man or woman alone, with children.’
• M. F. Nimkoff- ‘Family is the biological, social unit composed of husband, wife and children.’
• The family has been defined by different social scientists.-

  • Maclver -‘The family, almost without question, is the most important of any groups that human experience offers the family is with us always, or more precisely, we are with it.’

  • Robert Bierstedt- ‘Family is a more or less durable association of husband and wife, with or without a child, or of a man or woman alone, with children.’,

  • M. F. Nimkoff - ‘Family is the biological social unit composed of husband, wife and children.’

  • Burgess and Locke- ‘Family is a group of persons, whose relations to one another are based upon con­sanguinity and who are therefore kin to one another.’

The correct answer is Male.

Key Points

• The term patriarchy comes from the Latin pater (father) and arch (rule).
• Historically, “rule of the father” was the more appropriate definition of patriarchy.
• Valentine Moghadam has written that under classic patriarchy, “the senior man has authority over everyone else in the family, including younger men, and women are subject to distinct forms of control and subordination”.
• Furthermore, property, residence, and descent all proceed exclusively through the male line.
• Today, however, this definition may be considered an overly simplistic description because the phenomenon has evolved substantially over time.
• As already mentioned, to varying degrees, patriarchy is nearly universally prevalent.
• Although, as Gerda Lerner (1986) has noted, anthropologists have found societies in which sexual differences are not associated with practices of dominance or subordination, patriarchy does exist in the majority of societies.
• Often, patriarchy is associated more strongly with nations characterized by religious fundamentalism.
• Yet male domination and female subordination are salient features of social structure in virtually all societies, regardless of the race, ethnicity, class, or religion of the members.
• Most patriarchal societies have adopted characteristics associated with male domination, namely, aggression and power, as well as the consequences of these characteristics, namely, war and destruction.

The correct answer is Authority.

Key Points

• Archy, a combining form meaning "rule or authority in the word patriarchy. Hence option 1) is correct.
• Patriarchy is an institutionalized social system in which men dominate over others, but can also refer to dominance over women specifically.
• It can also extend to a variety of manifestations in which men have social privileges over others to cause exploitation or oppression, such as through male dominance of moral authority and control of the property.
• Patriarchal societies can be patrilineal or matrilineal, meaning that property and title are inherited by the male or female lineage respectively.
• Patriarchy is associated with a set of ideas, a patriarchal ideology that acts to explain and justify this dominance and attributes it to inherent natural differences between men and women.
• Sociologists hold varied opinions on whether patriarchy is a social product or an outcome of innate differences between the sexes.
• Sociobiologists have argued that the roots of inequality were set in humanity's earliest period and are primarily due to genetic and reproductive differences between men and women.
• Aligned closely with evolutionary psychology, this theory posits that gender inequity is an inherent part of human social structures.

The correct answer is Peculiarity of social status.

Key Points

• Hypergamy (colloquially referred to as "marrying up" is a term used in social science for the act or practice of a person marrying a spouse of a higher caste or social status than themselves.
  • It is mostly practiced by women.
• The antonym "hypogamy" refers to the inverse: marrying a person of lower social class or status (colloquially "marrying down").
• Both terms were coined in the Indian subcontinent in the 19th century while translating classical Hindu law books, which used the Sanskrit terms anuloma and pratiloma, respectively, for the two concepts.
• The term hypergamy is used to describe the overall practice of women marrying up since the men would be marrying down.
• Farmers and other rural workers want their daughters to have access to city life, for with metropolitan connections comes better job opportunities, upper-class social circles, even better housing opportunities, and utilities (internet access, reliable electricity, running potable water, heat/cooling).
• A connection in an urban area creates a broader social horizon for the bride's family, and young children in the family can be sent to live with the couple in the city for better schooling.
• Hypergamy comes with a cost though: the dowry often costs as much or more than an entire house.

The correct answer is the Husband's brother.

Key Points

• ​The term comes from the Latin levir, meaning “husband's brother.” Hence option 3) is correct.
• The “brother” may be a biological sibling of the deceased or a person who is socially classified as such.
• Where the brother is required to be younger than the deceased, the custom is called the junior levirate.
• Levirate marriage is a type of marriage in which the brother of a deceased man is obliged to marry his brother's widow.
• Levirate marriage has been practiced by societies with a strong clan structure in which exogamous marriage (i.e. marriage outside the clan) is forbidden.
• It has been known in many societies around the world. 
• Levirate marriage can, at its most positive, serve as protection for the widow and her children, ensuring that they have a male provider and protector.
• Levirate marriage can be a positive in a society where women must rely on men to provide for them, especially in societies where women are under the authority of, dependent on, in servitude to or regarded as possessions of their husbands, and to ensure the survival of the clan.
• The practice of levirate marriage is strongly associated with patriarchal societies. 

The correct answer is Exogamous.

Key Points

• Exogamy, also called out-marriage, custom enjoining marriage outside one’s own group.
• In some cases, the rules of exogamy may also specify the outside group into which an individual must marry.
• The severity of enforcement of exogamous restrictions varies greatly across cultures and may range from death to mild disapproval.
• Mandatory marriage within one’s own group is known as endogamy.
• Exogamy is most often determined by kinship rather than ethnicity, religion, or social class.
• It's most common among people who trace their ancestors solely through their fathers (patrilineality) or mothers (matrilineality).
• Clans or moieties can be formed from these lineages.
• Exogamy is most commonly found here; marrying a member of one's own clan or moiety is usually considered incest.

The correct answer is Mead.

Key Points

• Mind, Self, and Society is a book based on American sociologist George Herbert Mead's teachings, which was released posthumously in 1934 by his students.
• It is acknowledged as being the foundation for symbolic interactionism theory.
• Because the work was based on oral dialogue and Mead's student's notes, the Charles W. Morris edition of Mind, Self, and Society sparked authorship debates.
• George H. Mead depicts a psychological analysis through behavior and an individual's connection with reality.
• The majority of sociological experiences and contacts shape the conduct.
• Individual behaviors are formed as a result of these experiences, which contribute to the social elements that shape societal communication.
• Understanding another person's gestures can be regarded as communication.
• Communication, according to Mead, is a social activity since it necessitates the interaction of two or more people.
• He goes on to say that the self is a social process in which the "I," the pure form of self, and the "Me," the social form of self, communicate.
• "I" becomes a "Me" response and vice versa.
• The same "I" is concerned with an individual's response, while the "Me" is concerned with the attitudes you adopt, both of which are tied to social selves.

The correct answer is Marital.

Key Points

• Achieved status- Achieved status is a term coined by anthropologist Ralph Linton to describe a social position that can be gained or selected on the basis of merit.
• It represents personal skills, abilities, and efforts and is the polar opposite of a given rank. Hence option 3) is correct.
• Olympic athletes, criminals, and college professors are examples of people who have attained status.
• Status is significant in sociology because it entails a set of rights, obligations, behaviors, and responsibilities that persons in various positions are expected or encouraged to fulfill.
• Roles are the terms used to describe these expectations.
• A professor's responsibilities, for example, include teaching students, addressing their queries, and remaining impartial and suitable.
• Individuals or groups are assigned ascribed status based on factors beyond their control, such as sex, race, or parental social rank.
• It is frequently linked to closed societies.
• Achieved status is distinguished from ascribed status by virtue of being earned.

The correct answer is Role Strain.

Key Points

• Role Strain is a situation caused by higher-than-expected demands placed on an individual performing a specific role that leads to difficulty or stress.
• Hence the correct answer is option 1).
• Sociologists and society, in general, use the term "role" to describe a set of anticipated behaviors and obligations that a person has based on their particular location in the world.
• In our daily lives, we all have various tasks and duties.
• This may indicate that one job is at odds with another.
• Role conflict is the term for this situation.
• For example, if you are a student and a worker, and your boss requires you to work late, this may interfere with your capacity to study for an exam the following day.

The correct answer is status.

Key Points

• In all of the many social groups that we as individuals belong to, we have a status and a role to fulfill. 
• Status is our relative social position within a group, while a role is a part our society expects us to play in a given status. 
• For example, a man may have the status of father in his family. 
• Because of this status, he is expected to fulfill a role for his children that in most societies requires him to nurture, educate, guide, and protect them. 
• The manner in which we obtain our status varies substantially from culture to culture.
• They are, however, either attained or assigned in all communities.
• Achieved statuses are those that are earned by action.
  • Someone becomes a criminal, for example, by committing a crime.
  • A soldier obtains the title of good warrior via fighting successes and bravery. A woman becomes a mother when she has a child.
• Ascribed statuses, on the other hand, are the outcome of being born into a specific family or being born male or female.
  • Ascribed statuses include being born a royal or being the first of four children in a household.
  • They are not voluntary statuses, and we do not make a decision to choose them.
  • We normally do not choose our own gender or the family we are born into.

The correct answer is Competition.

Key Points

• ​Competition isn't something you do on your alone.
• It's a type of "engagement without social contact." Hence option 2) is correct.
• The contestants are not in contact and have never met.
• On a personal level, they do not compete with one another.
• All of the contestants' attention is focused on the goal or prize they see.
• As a result, competition is regarded as a faceless affair.
• Competition happens whenever there is an insufficient amount of something that humans desire, in the sense that no one can have as much as they want.
• According to Ogburn and Nimkoff, competition develops when demand exceeds supply.
• People do not compete for sunshine, air, and other natural gifts because they are plenty.

The correct answer is Maclver and Page.

Key Points

• In general, a community is a group of people living in a particular area and having a feeling of common living and identity. 
• Bogardus: Community is “a social group with some degree of we-feeling living in a given area.” 
• Ogburn and Nimkoff: “A community is a group or collection of groups that inhibit a locality.” 
• MacIver and Page: “A community is an area of social living marked by some degree of social coherence.”
• MacIver and Page have listed two bases of community: 
  • Locality: A community always occupies a territorial area. The strong bond of solidarity that we find among the members of a community is derived from the condition of locality (living in a definite geographic area). To some extent, this local bond has been weakened in the modern world by the extending facilities of communication. However, the extension of communication itself is responsible for the expansion of communities far and wide. 
  • Community Sentiment: Locality (though a necessary condition) is not enough to create a community. It needs a feeling of belonging together (we-feeling). There must be a common living with its awareness of sharing a way of life as well as the common earth.
• ​For a better understanding of the concept of community, the following are listed its main features (characteristics): 
  • A community is a group of people. 
  • It has a delimited geographic area or locality. 
  • It is marked by a common culture and social system. 
  • There exists a consciousness among the members about their unity and sense of belongingness. 
  • Members of a community act collectively in an organised manner. Mostly there exists a division of labour in a community. 
  • A community is not deliberately created, it establishes in a natural way. It is much more stable and permanent. 
  • Informal means of social control are used in a community.

The correct answer is Authority Relations.

Key Points

• A crucial component to Dahrendorf’s conflict theory is the idea of authority. Although it initially appears to be an individual issue and psychological, Dahrendorf argues that authority is related to positions not individuals.
• In this way, subordination and authority are products of expectation specified by society, and if those roles are not adhered to, sanctions are imposed. 
• Dahrendorf expands on this idea with the notion that roles of authority may conflict when in different positions that call for different things.
• According to Dahrendorf, these different defined areas of society where people’s roles may be different are called imperatively coordinated associations. The groups of society in different associations are drawn together by their common interests.
• Dahrendorf explains that latent interests are natural interests that arise unconsciously in conflict between superordinates and subordinates.
• He defines manifest interests as latent interests when they are realized.
• Dahrendorf believed that the basis of class conflict was the division of three groups of society: quasi groups, interest groups, and conflict groups.
• Thus, society can be split up into the "command class" and the "obey class" and class conflict should refer to situations of struggle between those with authority and those without.