Chemistry Test-6

Bakelite polymer is thermosetting polymer.

Bakelite:

• It is formed from a condensation reaction of phenol with formaldehyde.
• It is used in electrical insulators, radio and telephone casings, and such diverse products as kitchenware, jewellery, pipe stems, children's toys, and firearms.

Given,

The vapour pressure of pure liquid 'M' \(=P_{M}^{0}=450 \mathrm{mmHg}\),

The vapour pressure of pure liquid 'N' \(=P_{N}^{0}=700 \mathrm{mmHg}\)

According to Raoult’s law,

For liquid ‘M’,

\(P_{M}=P_{M}^{0} x_{M}\)

Let P_T be the total vapour pressure

The partial pressure of one individual gas within the overall mixtures, P can be expressed as follows:

P = x P_T

\(P_{M}=P_{M}^{0} x_{M}=y_{M} P_{T}\)

\(P_{M}^{0} x_{M}=y_{M} P_{T}\)

\(P_{M}^{0}=\frac{y_{M}}{x_{M}}\left(P_{T}\right)\)

Similarly for liquid ‘N’,

\(P_{N}^{0}=\frac{y_{N}}{x_{N}}\left(P_{T}\right)\)

Given, \(P_{M}^{0}

\(\frac{y_{M}}{x_{M}}<\frac{y_{N}}{x_{N}}\)

\(\frac{y_{M}}{y_{N}}<\frac{x_{M}}{x_{N}}\)

Thus, the correct statement is,

\(\frac{x_{M}}{x_{N}}>\frac{y_{M}}{y_{N}}\)

The Process of optimizing fat content in milk is called standardization.

Standardization:

• It is defined as the adjustment of one or more of the milk constituents to a nominated level.
• In the market milk industry, this normally involved reducing the butterfat content by the addition of skim milk or through the removal of the cream.
• E.g - condensed milk, milk powder.

Vitamin fortification:

• It is the practice of deliberately increasing the content of an essential micronutrient, i.e. vitamins and minerals (including trace elements) in a food.
• It is done to improve the nutritional quality of the food supply and provide a public benefit with minimal risk to health.
• E.g - milk is often fortified with Vitamin D, Calcium added to fruit juices, etc.

Pasteurization:

• It is a process in which packages and non-packaged foods (such as milk and fruit juice) are treated with mild heat, usually to less than 100 degrees C to eliminate pathogens and extend shelf life.
• It is purely a physical process and nothing is added to the packaged food
• E.g - Canned goods, Dairy products, Milk, Nuts, etc.

Homogenization:

• Milk is an oil-in-water emulsion, with the fat globules dispersed in a continuous phase of skim milk.
• Homogenization is a mechanical process used to reduce the size of the fat globules in milk.

Laundry soap are a synthetic detergent and used for cleaning cloths which is unaffected by hard or soft water.

Medicated soaps contain antibacterial properties to care for your skin. By removing all the bacteria that generally cause skin issues, medical soap helps to treat your skin gently.

Toilet soap is also a soap used for skins and based on animal or plant oils.

Glycerine soap contains more glycerine which is gentler to skin and which is animal or plant oils.

Soap:

• A soap is the sodium or potassium salt of a long chain carboxylic acid or glycerol.
• They are prepared from animal fats or plant based oils.
• Their efficiency decreases in hard water.
• It take more time to dissolve in water.
• They are biodegradable.

Synthetic Detergent or soapless soap:

• They are the sodium salts of long chain benzene sulphonic acids or the sodium salt of a long chain alkyl hydrogen sulphate.
• They are prepared from hydrocarbons extracted from coal or petroleum.
• Their efficiency is unaffected in hard water.
• They dissolve faster than soaps.
• Some are not biodegradable.

'Nylon 6, 6 is an elastomer' statement is incorrect regarding Nylon 6, 6.

Elastomers:

• These are the polymers having very weak intermolecular forces of attraction between polymer chains.
• Elastomers possess elastic character.
• Vulcanized rubber is a very important example of an elastomer.

Nylon 6,6:

It is prepared by the condensation polymerization of hexamethylenediamine with adipic acid under high pressure and at high temperatures (553K).

• It is a polyamide because these polymers contain amide linkage (-CONH-) in the chain.
• Nylon 6, 6 is fiber-forming solid.
• It possesses high tensile strength, tough and abrasion-resistant.
• This characteristic can be attributed to the strong intermolecular forces like hydrogen bonding.
• These strong forces also lead to close packing of chains and thus impart crystalline nature.
• Nylon 6, 6 is used in making sheets, carpets, bristles for brushes, and in the textile industry.
• Nylon 6, 6 is not an elastomer.

In the reaction of alcohols with sodium metal, bond cleavage of the O-H bond takes place.

The ease of breakage of the O-H bond in alcohols is an indication of the acidity of alcohols.

We know that the ease of this bond breakage follows the order primary > secondary > tertiary.

So, the ease of reactivity of sodium follow the order:

Deviation from Markownikoff's rule occurs in presence of Peroxides.

Markownikov rule:

• During the addition of a polar molecule to an unsymmetrical alkene or alkyne, the negative part of the addendum is added to the more substituted Carbon atom.
• The positive part of the addendum gets added to the less substituted carbon part of the alkyne.

Anti - Markownikoff's rule or Peroxide effect:

• Kharash discovered that the addition of HBr to unsymmetrical alkenes in presence of organic peroxides takes place against Markownikoff's rule.
• The more saturated carbon gets the positive part of the addendum whereas the less saturated carbon atom gets the negative part of the addendum when an addition reaction of an unsymmetrical alkane takes place in presence of peroxide. this is known as Anti - Markownikoff's rule.

So, deviation from Markownikoff's rule occurs in presence of peroxides.

The structure of NiCl₂(PPh₃)₂ is tetrahedral.

Nickel (Ni) in the complex NiCl₂(PPh₃)₂, Ni is in a +2 oxidation state. Hence the electronic configuration is [Ar]3d⁸.

Out of eight 3d electrons, 6 are paired and two are unpaired.

As chlorine is a weak field ligand, it is not able to pair the electrons in Nickel and thus d orbitals of Ni do not participate in hybridization.

The orbitals participating are 4s and 4p.

Electron pairs from Cl and PPh₃ are donated into one 4s and three 4p empty orbitals of Nickel giving us sp³ hybridization.

\(\mathrm{\left[ Ni Cl _2\left( PPh _3\right)_2\right]}\)

The structure is tetrahedral.

H₂SO₄ is used as an electrolytes in the Lead-Acid battery.

Lead- Acid Battery:

• The battery that uses lead and lead peroxide for the conversion of the chemical energy into electrical energy is called a lead-acid battery.
• This battery is used in small portable equipment such as emergency lights. These are also used in Cars.

Dry cell convert chemical energy to electrical energy.

An electrical cell internally converts stored chemical energy into electrical potential energy, allowing a current to flow from the positive terminal round to the negative one via an external circuit

There is a potential difference between the terminals of a cell:

• Positive or Higher
• Negative or Lower

The electrical cells are of two types:

Primary cells: The chemical reactions are irreversible in these types of cells. These types of cells are discarded after use as they cannot be recharged.

• Examples: Simple voltaic cells, Daniel cell, and dry cell.

Secondary cells: The chemical reactions are reversible in these types of cells and they can be recharged after use.

• Examples: Li-H Battery, Li-ion Battery(Used in Mobile phones).

So, dry cell convert chemical energy to electrical energy.

The mode of hybridization of carbon in CO is sp.

In CO, the structure is:

• : C ≡ O :

There exist three bonds between carbon and oxygen out of which one is sigma and two are pi.

So, two pi bond corresponds to 'sp' hybridization.

The sigma bond between the two atoms is made by the head-on overlap of 2p - 2p orbitals of Carbon and Oxygen.

The pi bonds are formed by the lateral overlap between p orbitals of carbon and oxygen.

So, the mode of hybridization of carbon in CO is 'sp'.

'At low temperature and High pressure' condition a real gas deviates maximum from the ideal gas law.

Ideal Gas Law:

• The ideal gas law says that "The pressure, temperature, and volume of a gas are related to each other".
• pV=nRT is called the ideal gas equation where p = pressure, V = Volume, R= The Gas constant, T = Temperature and n = Number of moles
• The gases which follow the ideas gas equation are called ideal gases.

Deviation of real gases:

Real gases deviate from the ideal gas law due to the finite volume occupied by individual gas particles.

Real gases are made up of particles that occupy a volume that has a non-zero value, it is also known as the excluded volume.

There are two situations in which the behavior of real gases deviates from the ideal gas model:

1. At high pressures when the volume occupied by gas molecules does not approach zero
2. At low temperatures when the contribution of intermolecular forces becomes significant

The ideal gas equation functions well only when the intermolecular attraction between gas molecules is negligible, and the gas molecules themselves do not occupy a significant part of the whole volume.

Isotopes have similar chemical properties but different atomic masses.

Isotope of an element has a different number of neutrons but have the same number of protons.For instance, isotopes of Hydrogen are Protium, Deuterium and Tritium.

Isomers: They share the same formula but a different arrangement of atoms in the molecule which make them, possess different properties. The atomic number and atomic mass are equal but the energy states are different.

Actinides: It is the third group in the periodic table. These are the elements from atomic numbers 89 to 103.These have properties of both the d-block and the f-block elements, but they are also radioactive.

Isobars: They have the same mass number but a different atomic numbers (number of protons).

Methane is a saturated hydrocarbon.

• Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons.
• Saturated means that the hydrocarbon has only single bonds and that the hydrocarbon contains the maximum number of hydrogen atoms for each carbon atom.
• It means that each carbon atom is bonded to four other atoms (hydrogen or carbon)—the most possible, there are no double or triple bonds in the molecules.
• The general formula for an alkane is C_nH_2n+2.
• In this formula, n, is the number of carbon atoms in the molecule.

Functional group -CHO is present in Aldehydes. Aldehyde is a class of organic compounds, in which a carbon atom shares a double bond with an oxygen atom, a single bond with a hydrogen atom, and a single bond with another atom or group of atoms (designated R in general chemical formulas and structure diagrams).

The double bond between carbon and oxygen is characteristic of all aldehydes and is known as the carbonyl group. Aldehydes are often written in the short form of R–CHO

Aldehydes contain the carbonyl group bonded to at least one hydrogen atom. The IUPAC system of nomenclature assigns a characteristic suffix -al to aldehydes. For example, H₂C=O is methanol.

• The functional group of -OH is Alcohol.
• The functional group of >C=O is Ketone.
• The functional group of -COOH is Carboxylic acid.