Peasants, Zamindars and the State Test - 2

One of the functions of the village panchayat in terms of caste relations was often to enforce social hierarchy. The panchayat, as a traditional institution, typically reflected and sometimes reinforced existing caste-based social structures within the village. This could involve maintaining caste boundaries, ensuring adherence to traditional norms and customs that reinforced social hierarchies, and resolving disputes or conflicts that arose based on caste distinctions.

Maize was introduced into India via Africa and Spain during the seventeenth century.

Funds for the village panchayat were typically obtained through contributions made by individuals within the village to a common financial pool. These contributions could take various forms, such as monetary donations, offerings of agricultural produce, or voluntary labor.

Peasants who cultivated lands in villages other than their own on a contractual basis are referred to as non-resident cultivators. They would often enter into agreements or contracts with landowners or landlords to work on their fields for a specified period, usually in exchange for a share of the produce or fixed wages. This arrangement allowed for the utilization of labor resources from outside the immediate village community and was common in many agrarian societies.

Topography: Topography, including factors like soil type, elevation, and climate, is a significant influence on agricultural practices in rural India. Different regions have distinct topographical features, leading to a wide variety of farming techniques and crop choices. For example, regions with fertile plains might focus on intensive agriculture, while hilly areas may specialize in terrace farming or horticulture.

Commercial crops, also known as jins-i kamil, were encouraged by the Mughal state as they brought in more revenue.

During the Mughal Empire, the wooden plough was a commonly used technology in agriculture. The wooden plough was a simple yet effective tool used for tilling the soil and preparing it for planting. It was pulled by animals such as oxen or water buffalo and helped farmers break up the soil, making it more suitable for planting crops. While electricity, tractors, and diesel engines are modern agricultural technologies, during the Mughal period, agricultural practices relied primarily on traditional tools and techniques like the wooden plough.

While peasants can indeed be a highly heterogeneous group, including individuals from various caste backgrounds, the term used to specifically describe the highly heterogeneous group of cultivators based on caste distinctions is typically "cultivator caste." This term refers to the various social groups or castes involved in agricultural activities, each with its own roles, responsibilities, and socio-economic status within rural society.

The role of the headman in the village panchayat often included overseeing the preparation of village accounts. The headman was typically responsible for maintaining records related to village finances, including revenue collection, expenditures, and other financial transactions. This role was crucial for ensuring transparency and accountability in the management of village resources and finances. While the headman might have had other responsibilities as well, such as representing the village in external matters or settling disputes, overseeing the village accounts was a primary duty.

In cases of excessive revenue demands, the panchayat often suggested compromise. In cases where reconciliation failed, peasants took recourse to more drastic forms of resistance, such as deserting the village.