English Test - 84

Read the given sentence and select the most appropriate ANTONYM of the word ‘Sane’ from the following options.

Directions: Read the following passage carefully:

In large part as a consequence of the feminist movement, historians have focused a great deal of attention in recent years on determining more accurately the status of women in various periods. Although much has been accomplished for the modern period, premodern cultures have proved more difficult: sources are restricted in number, fragmentary, difficult to interpret, and often contradictory. Thus it is not particularly surprising that some earlier scholarship concerning such cultures has so far gone unchallenged. An example is Johann Bachofen's 1861 treatise on Amazons, women-ruled societies of questionable existence contemporary with ancient Greece.

Starting from the premise that mythology and legend preserve at least a nucleus of historical art, Bachofen argued that women were dominant in many ancient societies. His work was based on a comprehensive survey of references in the ancient sources to Amazonian and other societies with matrilineal customs - societies in which descent and property rights are traced through the female line. Some support for his theory can be found in evidence such as that drawn from Herodotus, the Greek historian of the fifth century B.C., who speaks of an Amazonian society, the Sauromatae, where the women hunted and fought in wars. A woman in this society was not allowed to marry until she had killed a person in battle.

Nonetheless, this assumption that the first recorders of ancient myths have preserved facts is problematic.

If one begins by examining why ancients refer to Amazons, it becomes clear that ancient Greek descriptions of such societies were meant not so much to represent observed historical fact - real Amazonian societies - but rather to offer moral lessons on the supposed outcome of women's rule in their own society.

The Amazons were often characterized, for example, as the equivalents of giants and centaurs, enemies to be slain by Greek heroes. Their customs were presented not as those of a respectable society, but as the very antithesis of ordinary Greek practices.

Thus I would argue, the purpose of accounts of the Amazons for their male Greek recorders is didactic, to teach both male and female Greeks that all-female groups, formed by withdrawal from traditional society, are destructive and dangerous. Myths about the Amazons were used in arguments for the male dominated status quo, in which groups composed exclusively of either sex were not permitted to segregate themselves permanently from society. Bachofen was thus misled in his reliance on myths for information about the status of women. Social documents like gravestones, wills and marriage contracts will probably tell contemporary historians most about women in the ancient world. Studies of such documents have already began to show how mistaken we are when we try to derive our picture of the ancient world exclusively from literary sources especially myths.

Directions: Read the following passage carefully:

In large part as a consequence of the feminist movement, historians have focused a great deal of attention in recent years on determining more accurately the status of women in various periods. Although much has been accomplished for the modern period, premodern cultures have proved more difficult: sources are restricted in number, fragmentary, difficult to interpret, and often contradictory. Thus it is not particularly surprising that some earlier scholarship concerning such cultures has so far gone unchallenged. An example is Johann Bachofen's 1861 treatise on Amazons, women-ruled societies of questionable existence contemporary with ancient Greece.

Starting from the premise that mythology and legend preserve at least a nucleus of historical art, Bachofen argued that women were dominant in many ancient societies. His work was based on a comprehensive survey of references in the ancient sources to Amazonian and other societies with matrilineal customs - societies in which descent and property rights are traced through the female line. Some support for his theory can be found in evidence such as that drawn from Herodotus, the Greek historian of the fifth century B.C., who speaks of an Amazonian society, the Sauromatae, where the women hunted and fought in wars. A woman in this society was not allowed to marry until she had killed a person in battle.

Nonetheless, this assumption that the first recorders of ancient myths have preserved facts is problematic.

If one begins by examining why ancients refer to Amazons, it becomes clear that ancient Greek descriptions of such societies were meant not so much to represent observed historical fact - real Amazonian societies - but rather to offer moral lessons on the supposed outcome of women's rule in their own society.

The Amazons were often characterized, for example, as the equivalents of giants and centaurs, enemies to be slain by Greek heroes. Their customs were presented not as those of a respectable society, but as the very antithesis of ordinary Greek practices.

Thus I would argue, the purpose of accounts of the Amazons for their male Greek recorders is didactic, to teach both male and female Greeks that all-female groups, formed by withdrawal from traditional society, are destructive and dangerous. Myths about the Amazons were used in arguments for the male dominated status quo, in which groups composed exclusively of either sex were not permitted to segregate themselves permanently from society. Bachofen was thus misled in his reliance on myths for information about the status of women. Social documents like gravestones, wills and marriage contracts will probably tell contemporary historians most about women in the ancient world. Studies of such documents have already began to show how mistaken we are when we try to derive our picture of the ancient world exclusively from literary sources especially myths.

Directions: Read the following passage carefully:

In large part as a consequence of the feminist movement, historians have focused a great deal of attention in recent years on determining more accurately the status of women in various periods. Although much has been accomplished for the modern period, premodern cultures have proved more difficult: sources are restricted in number, fragmentary, difficult to interpret, and often contradictory. Thus it is not particularly surprising that some earlier scholarship concerning such cultures has so far gone unchallenged. An example is Johann Bachofen's 1861 treatise on Amazons, women-ruled societies of questionable existence contemporary with ancient Greece.

Starting from the premise that mythology and legend preserve at least a nucleus of historical art, Bachofen argued that women were dominant in many ancient societies. His work was based on a comprehensive survey of references in the ancient sources to Amazonian and other societies with matrilineal customs - societies in which descent and property rights are traced through the female line. Some support for his theory can be found in evidence such as that drawn from Herodotus, the Greek historian of the fifth century B.C., who speaks of an Amazonian society, the Sauromatae, where the women hunted and fought in wars. A woman in this society was not allowed to marry until she had killed a person in battle.

Nonetheless, this assumption that the first recorders of ancient myths have preserved facts is problematic.

If one begins by examining why ancients refer to Amazons, it becomes clear that ancient Greek descriptions of such societies were meant not so much to represent observed historical fact - real Amazonian societies - but rather to offer moral lessons on the supposed outcome of women's rule in their own society.

The Amazons were often characterized, for example, as the equivalents of giants and centaurs, enemies to be slain by Greek heroes. Their customs were presented not as those of a respectable society, but as the very antithesis of ordinary Greek practices.

Thus I would argue, the purpose of accounts of the Amazons for their male Greek recorders is didactic, to teach both male and female Greeks that all-female groups, formed by withdrawal from traditional society, are destructive and dangerous. Myths about the Amazons were used in arguments for the male dominated status quo, in which groups composed exclusively of either sex were not permitted to segregate themselves permanently from society. Bachofen was thus misled in his reliance on myths for information about the status of women. Social documents like gravestones, wills and marriage contracts will probably tell contemporary historians most about women in the ancient world. Studies of such documents have already began to show how mistaken we are when we try to derive our picture of the ancient world exclusively from literary sources especially myths.

Directions: Read the following passage carefully:

In large part as a consequence of the feminist movement, historians have focused a great deal of attention in recent years on determining more accurately the status of women in various periods. Although much has been accomplished for the modern period, premodern cultures have proved more difficult: sources are restricted in number, fragmentary, difficult to interpret, and often contradictory. Thus it is not particularly surprising that some earlier scholarship concerning such cultures has so far gone unchallenged. An example is Johann Bachofen's 1861 treatise on Amazons, women-ruled societies of questionable existence contemporary with ancient Greece.

Starting from the premise that mythology and legend preserve at least a nucleus of historical art, Bachofen argued that women were dominant in many ancient societies. His work was based on a comprehensive survey of references in the ancient sources to Amazonian and other societies with matrilineal customs - societies in which descent and property rights are traced through the female line. Some support for his theory can be found in evidence such as that drawn from Herodotus, the Greek historian of the fifth century B.C., who speaks of an Amazonian society, the Sauromatae, where the women hunted and fought in wars. A woman in this society was not allowed to marry until she had killed a person in battle.

Nonetheless, this assumption that the first recorders of ancient myths have preserved facts is problematic.

If one begins by examining why ancients refer to Amazons, it becomes clear that ancient Greek descriptions of such societies were meant not so much to represent observed historical fact - real Amazonian societies - but rather to offer moral lessons on the supposed outcome of women's rule in their own society.

The Amazons were often characterized, for example, as the equivalents of giants and centaurs, enemies to be slain by Greek heroes. Their customs were presented not as those of a respectable society, but as the very antithesis of ordinary Greek practices.

Thus I would argue, the purpose of accounts of the Amazons for their male Greek recorders is didactic, to teach both male and female Greeks that all-female groups, formed by withdrawal from traditional society, are destructive and dangerous. Myths about the Amazons were used in arguments for the male dominated status quo, in which groups composed exclusively of either sex were not permitted to segregate themselves permanently from society. Bachofen was thus misled in his reliance on myths for information about the status of women. Social documents like gravestones, wills and marriage contracts will probably tell contemporary historians most about women in the ancient world. Studies of such documents have already began to show how mistaken we are when we try to derive our picture of the ancient world exclusively from literary sources especially myths.

Directions: Read the following passage carefully:

India’s delicately balanced aviation sector wouldn’t be the only casualty of costlier crude oil: Local travelers now have to pay more to fly within the country as expensive jet fuel propels airlines to raise domestic fares.

Higher consumer fares in mid-2026 reflect the persistent rise in aviation turbine fuel (ATF) prices, driven by the ongoing geopolitical disruptions and refinery constraints. After a brief lull in early 2025, prices firmed up, breaching the $50 per barrel mark for the jet fuel "crack spread"—the difference in price between crude oil and the fuel products refined from it.

The trend has led carriers to pass additional fuel costs on to consumers, leading to a visible shift in passenger travel habits, many of whom have reconsidered flying after the gap between air and premium train fares widened in 2026. A senior executive at a major domestic airline stated that the industry has continued the practice of levying a fuel surcharge—a fare component linked to movements in jet fuel prices—on domestic flights.

“We used to charge a minimal amount depending on short- and long haul sectors. Now we charge substantially more,” he added. Jet-fuel remains the biggest cost item for Indian carriers, constituting up to 40-50% of operating expenses.

Prices of petroleum products began rising steadily as global supply chains faced constraints, with a June 2026 McKinsey report highlighting reduced refinery production from major Asian jet fuel exporters.

However, after a period of intense pressure, global crude oil prices began firming and have stabilized around $85 a barrel, though the crack spread remains historically high, a level that analysts believe could translate into airfares climbing by up to 25% this year.

To cushion airlines from unprecedented fuel price volatility, the Union Cabinet in June 2026 approved a one-time budgetary support package of ₹10,000 crore as an ATF price stabilization fund. Under this mechanism, Oil Marketing Companies (OMCs) will be compensated whenever the prevailing import parity price of ATF exceeds a government-determined benchmark.

Travel company executives said overall fares have increased in 2026. According to data on Makemytrip, the country’s biggest online travel portal, average fares dropped late last year but rose sharply in the summer of 2026. Spot-booking fares have risen drastically, though those booking 14 days in advance continue to see marginal relief.

Last year, airlines had offered substantial discounts across sectors and made attractive offers for ticket-buyers who planned their travel in advance, resulting in lower yields. To be sure, the industry’s ability to charge more will depend on the direction in aviation fuel prices and seasonal changes in air-travel demand.

Directions: Read the following passage carefully:

India’s delicately balanced aviation sector wouldn’t be the only casualty of costlier crude oil: Local travelers now have to pay more to fly within the country as expensive jet fuel propels airlines to raise domestic fares.

Higher consumer fares in mid-2026 reflect the persistent rise in aviation turbine fuel (ATF) prices, driven by the ongoing geopolitical disruptions and refinery constraints. After a brief lull in early 2025, prices firmed up, breaching the $50 per barrel mark for the jet fuel "crack spread"—the difference in price between crude oil and the fuel products refined from it.

The trend has led carriers to pass additional fuel costs on to consumers, leading to a visible shift in passenger travel habits, many of whom have reconsidered flying after the gap between air and premium train fares widened in 2026. A senior executive at a major domestic airline stated that the industry has continued the practice of levying a fuel surcharge—a fare component linked to movements in jet fuel prices—on domestic flights.

“We used to charge a minimal amount depending on short- and long haul sectors. Now we charge substantially more,” he added. Jet-fuel remains the biggest cost item for Indian carriers, constituting up to 40-50% of operating expenses.

Prices of petroleum products began rising steadily as global supply chains faced constraints, with a June 2026 McKinsey report highlighting reduced refinery production from major Asian jet fuel exporters.

However, after a period of intense pressure, global crude oil prices began firming and have stabilized around $85 a barrel, though the crack spread remains historically high, a level that analysts believe could translate into airfares climbing by up to 25% this year.

To cushion airlines from unprecedented fuel price volatility, the Union Cabinet in June 2026 approved a one-time budgetary support package of ₹10,000 crore as an ATF price stabilization fund. Under this mechanism, Oil Marketing Companies (OMCs) will be compensated whenever the prevailing import parity price of ATF exceeds a government-determined benchmark.

Travel company executives said overall fares have increased in 2026. According to data on Makemytrip, the country’s biggest online travel portal, average fares dropped late last year but rose sharply in the summer of 2026. Spot-booking fares have risen drastically, though those booking 14 days in advance continue to see marginal relief.

Last year, airlines had offered substantial discounts across sectors and made attractive offers for ticket-buyers who planned their travel in advance, resulting in lower yields. To be sure, the industry’s ability to charge more will depend on the direction in aviation fuel prices and seasonal changes in air-travel demand.

Directions: Read the following passage carefully:

India’s delicately balanced aviation sector wouldn’t be the only casualty of costlier crude oil: Local travelers now have to pay more to fly within the country as expensive jet fuel propels airlines to raise domestic fares.

Higher consumer fares in mid-2026 reflect the persistent rise in aviation turbine fuel (ATF) prices, driven by the ongoing geopolitical disruptions and refinery constraints. After a brief lull in early 2025, prices firmed up, breaching the $50 per barrel mark for the jet fuel "crack spread"—the difference in price between crude oil and the fuel products refined from it.

The trend has led carriers to pass additional fuel costs on to consumers, leading to a visible shift in passenger travel habits, many of whom have reconsidered flying after the gap between air and premium train fares widened in 2026. A senior executive at a major domestic airline stated that the industry has continued the practice of levying a fuel surcharge—a fare component linked to movements in jet fuel prices—on domestic flights.

“We used to charge a minimal amount depending on short- and long haul sectors. Now we charge substantially more,” he added. Jet-fuel remains the biggest cost item for Indian carriers, constituting up to 40-50% of operating expenses.

Prices of petroleum products began rising steadily as global supply chains faced constraints, with a June 2026 McKinsey report highlighting reduced refinery production from major Asian jet fuel exporters.

However, after a period of intense pressure, global crude oil prices began firming and have stabilized around $85 a barrel, though the crack spread remains historically high, a level that analysts believe could translate into airfares climbing by up to 25% this year.

To cushion airlines from unprecedented fuel price volatility, the Union Cabinet in June 2026 approved a one-time budgetary support package of ₹10,000 crore as an ATF price stabilization fund. Under this mechanism, Oil Marketing Companies (OMCs) will be compensated whenever the prevailing import parity price of ATF exceeds a government-determined benchmark.

Travel company executives said overall fares have increased in 2026. According to data on Makemytrip, the country’s biggest online travel portal, average fares dropped late last year but rose sharply in the summer of 2026. Spot-booking fares have risen drastically, though those booking 14 days in advance continue to see marginal relief.

Last year, airlines had offered substantial discounts across sectors and made attractive offers for ticket-buyers who planned their travel in advance, resulting in lower yields. To be sure, the industry’s ability to charge more will depend on the direction in aviation fuel prices and seasonal changes in air-travel demand.

Directions: Read the following passage carefully:

India’s delicately balanced current account wouldn’t be the only major casualty of costlier crude oil: Local travelers now have to pay more to fly within the country as expensive jet fuel propels airlines to raise domestic fares that had tracked global energy prices to plunge to record lows last year.

Higher consumer fares in January reflect the persistent rise in aviation-fuel prices, which increased 8% on-month in November at the New Delhi airport, the country’s busiest. After a brief lull in December, prices firmed in January and February, breaching the levels of 2025 when the cycle of declines began.

The trend has led carriers to pass additional fuel costs on to consumers, many of whom switched to airlines after the gap between air and upper-class train fares narrowed in 2026. A senior executive at Air India, India’s second-biggest airline by market share, said that the airline has recently revived the practice of levying a fuel surcharge - a fare component linked to movements in jet fuel prices - on domestic flights.

“We used to charge between Rs 100 and Rs 300 depending on short- and long haul sectors. Now we charge as much as Rs 700,” he added. Jet-fuel is the biggest cost item for Indian carriers.

Prices of petroleum products began rising since the spring after the 2025-26 winter witnessed record lows for crude oil, with global prices breaching $40 a barrel on their way down to levels not seen in recent years.

However, after a period of consolidation, global crude oil prices began firming and have now stabilized around $75 a barrel, a level that some believe would be maintained over the medium term.

Airlines had clubbed fuel surcharge with the base fare component in 2025 after an advisory from the Directorate General of Civil Aviation, the country’s aviation regulator.

No-frills carrier SpiceJet has separated the two components over the last six months, although the fuel surcharge hasn’t been increased yet, said a spokesperson.

Travel company executives said overall fares have increased in January. According to data on Makemytrip, the country’s biggest online travel portal, average fares dropped in November and December but rose in January. Ticket prices for the Delhi-Mumbai sector rose to Rs 4,266 in January, compared with Rs 3,908 the same month last year, Rs 4,914 on the Mumbai-Bangalore sector compared with Rs 4,573 a year earlier, and Rs 4,473 on the Mumbai-Chennai route, compared with Rs 3,784 last January. Rival Cleartrip noticed divergent trends that showed those booking early stood to benefit. Last year, spot-booking fares too had fallen drastically.

“An analysis of the last three months of airfare data for the top 20 air travel sectors reveals that the increased cost to airlines, contributed by the fuel prices surge and the rupee’s depreciation, has resulted in a 15% increase in airfares for a booking window of 0-14 days,” said Samyukth Sridharan, president and chief operating officer of Cleartrip. “At the same time, we see that the airlines have been quite aggressive in offering deals to passengers who plan in advance, reflected in a 21% year on-year drop in fares on an average for travel bookings made over 14 days in advance.”

Last year, airlines had offered substantial discounts across sectors and made attractive offers for ticket-buyers who planned their travel in advance, resulting in lower yields. To be sure, the industry’s ability to charge more will depend on the direction in aviation fuel prices and seasonal changes in air-travel demand.

“February and March are lean months, and the airlines may not have room to increase so much. But there will be increases subsequently if jet fuel prices continue their climb,” said a senior executive of a budget carrier.